Karakteriseren van de metabolische wijzigingen na inductie van geneesmiddelenresistentie bij Leishmania donovani

Bart
Cuypers

Wapenwedloop op moleculair niveau
Hoe kunnen we het resistent worden van Leishmania voorblijven?

Leishmaniasis, een verwaarloosde tropische ziekte

Wereldwijd is het leven van 1 op 6 mensen een nachtmerrie omdat ze lijden aan een  ’Neglected Tropical Disease’ (NTD). Het betreft hier allerlei parasieten zoals wormen van de huid, darmen of lymfevaten, maar ook eencellige organismen zoals bacteriën. NTD’s zijn vaak eenvoudig op te lossen met geneesmiddelen of hygiënemaatregelen. Deze oplossingen dringen echter niet door tot bij de armste mensen in afgelegen gebieden of krottenwijken.  Daarom spreekt men van ‘neglected’. Bovendien heeft deze groep mensen zeer weinig politieke invloed. Hiernaast spitsen de media zich vooral toe op HIV/AIDS, tuberculose en malaria. Op zich is die aandacht een goede zaak, maar omdat NTD’s naar de achtergrond verschoven worden, is het bijzonder moeilijk om fondsen te krijgen voor grootschalige bestrijdingsplannen of wetenschappelijk onderzoek.

Viscerale leishmaniasis is een van deze NTD’s. De ziekte wordt veroorzaakt door een eencellige parasiet, Leishmania, die overgedragen wordt van mens naar mens via een zandvlieg, een soort mug. De zandvlieg injecteert de parasiet in de bloedsomloop van de mens en vanaf hier begeeft hij zich naar de milt, het beenmerg en de lever. Zonder behandeling zal de ziekte bijna in alle gevallen resulteren in een dodelijke afloop.

Help, de parasiet verdraagt steeds beter onze geneesmiddelen!

Er bestaan 4 geneesmiddelen tegen leishmaniasis: Antimonialen, miltefosine, amfotericine B en paromomycine. Antimonialen werden bijna 100 jaar gebruikt om leishmaniasis te genezen. Over de jaren heen is de parasiet er echter in bepaalde gebieden in geslaagd om dit geneesmiddel beter en beter te verdragen.  Hierdoor moesten de artsen telkens de dosis van het geneesmiddel verhogen om het toch nog te laten aanslaan. Op een bepaald moment was de dosis verhogen echter niet meer mogelijk, want dan werd het geneesmiddel ook toxisch voor de patiënt zelf. In sommige regio’s zoals Bihar in Nepal, kan men daarom antimonialen niet meer gebruiken.

Miltefosine is het enig oraal in te nemen geneesmiddel tegen leishmaniasis. Voor de andere moet de patiënt enkele weken in het ziekenhuis blijven voor de toediening. Helaas hervalt op sommige plaatsen reeds 30 procent van de patiënten die behandeld werden met miltefosine. Vroeger was dit slechts 5 procent.  

Het is dus duidelijk dat als we Leishmania genoeg tijd geven, hij zich zodanig kan aanpassen dat onze geneesmiddelen niet meer werken. Voorlopig kunnen we nog rekenen op de goede werking van amfotericine B en paromomycine, maar het is belangrijk om de parasiet steeds een stap voor te blijven. Daarom is het essentieel om te begrijpen hoe deze geneesmiddelen juist werken, en hoe de parasiet hiertegen resistent kan worden. Helaas is van beide nog maar zeer weinig geweten. Het was dan ook het doel van mijn scriptie om aanknopingspunten te vinden voor toekomstig onderzoek naar geneesmiddelenwerking- en resistentie.

Het ontrafelen van geneesmiddelenwerking- en resistentie

Waar moet je beginnen met je onderzoek als je nauwelijks iets weet over hoe de geneesmiddelen werken? Dat is geen evidente vraag en voor mij werd het een studie op zich.

Er bestond nog geen Leishmania-stam die al resistent was tegen amfotericine B en paromomycine. Toch vonden we dat het interessant was om deze ook te bestuderen om voorbereid te zijn op de toekomst. Daarom werden in het labo stammen gemaakt die resistent zijn tegen deze geneesmiddelen. Dit is heel eenvoudig; men voert gewoon stelselmatig, gedurende een tiental weken, de concentratie van het geneesmiddel waaraan de parasiet wordt blootgesteld op. Op die manier krijgt hij de kans om het geneesmiddel steeds beter en beter te verdragen. Het was dan aan mij om te bestuderen hoe hij hier juist in slaagde.

Om die vraag op te lossen gebruikte ik een massaspectrometer. Dit is een toestel dat in staat is om honderden moleculen tegelijk te onderscheiden aan de hand van hun massa. Daarbij kan er niet bepaald worden hoeveel er precies van een bepaalde molecule in een specifieke parasietstam aanwezig was. Er kon echter wél worden vastgesteld in welke parasietstam er meer of minder molecule was ten opzichte van een niet-resistente stam.

Op die manier konden verscheidene aanknopingspunten gevonden worden voor geneesmiddelenwerking en –resistentie.

Kunnen geneesmiddelen waarvan de werking overlapt, sneller tot resistentie leiden?

Zo ontdekte ik dat amfotericine B en antimonialen mogelijk op een gelijkaardige manier de parasiet aanvallen. Ze kunnen namelijk in de parasiet toxische zuurstofproducten vormen en hem zo vernietigen. Van nature heeft Leishmania hier echter een verdedigingsmechanisme tegen. Hij bezit verscheidene moleculen (vb. thiolen en proline), die deze zuurstofproducten kunnen neutraliseren. Die zijn echter onvoldoende om de grote hoeveelheden geneesmiddel die we toedienen, te neutraliseren. Daarom slaagt het geneesmiddel er toch in om Leishmania te doden. In de resistente parasieten waren deze moleculen echter veel sterker aanwezig, waardoor hij minder gevoelig werd voor de zuurstofproducten. Aangezien de parasiet zich op dezelfde manier verdedigt tegen deze twee geneesmiddelen, is het mogelijk geen goed idee om amfotericine B te gebruiken in gebieden waar antimoniaal-resistentie is. Het zou immers kunnen dat zo resistentie tegen amfotericine B veel sneller kan ontstaan.

Miltefosine is een geneesmiddel dat inwerkt op de membraan, een dun vlies dat de parasiet omgeeft. Resistente parasieten bleken de samenstelling van deze membraan te veranderen om dit tegen te werken. Het is nog niet duidelijk waarom dit resistentie veroorzaakt, maar het is alvast een goed aanknopingspunt voor verdere studies.

Ook in paromomycine-resistente parasieten werden wijzigingen in de membraan gedetecteerd. Paromomycine zelf heeft wel geen werking op de membraan, maar het wordt wel via de membraan opgenomen. Misschien kan de parasiet dus door de wijzigingen deze opname verminderen. 

De toekomst

Deze studie heeft een goede basis gelegd voor onderzoek naar geneesmiddelenwerking en -resistentie. Dit is van groot belang om nieuwe geneesmiddelen te kunnen ontwikkelen. De onderzoekers tasten zo immers niet volledig in het duister. We moeten enkel zien dat we deze geneesmiddelen sneller kunnen ontwikkelen dan dat Leishmania resistent kan worden. Het is als het ware een nooit eindigende wapenwedloop tussen de onderzoekers en de parasiet.

 

Bibliografie

Referenties

Literatuur

Abu-Dayyeh, I., Shio, M. T., Sato, S., Akira, S., Cousineau, B., & Olivier, M. (2008). Leishmania-induced IRAK-1 inactivation is mediated by SHP-1 interacting with an evolutionarily conserved KTIM motif. PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 2(12), e305.

Acestor, N., Masina, S., Ives, A., Walker, J., Saravia, N. G., & Fasel, N. (2006). Resistance to oxidative stress is associated with metastasis in mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. The Journal of infectious diseases, 194(8), 1160–7.

Adaui, V., Castillo, D., Zimic, M., Gutierrez, A., Decuypere, S., Vanaerschot, M., … Dujardin, J.-C. (2011). Comparative gene expression analysis throughout the life cycle of Leishmania braziliensis: diversity of expression profiles among clinical isolates. PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 5(5), e1021.

Aït-Oudhia, K., Gazanion, E., Vergnes, B., Oury, B., & Sereno, D. (2011). Leishmania antimony resistance: what we know what we can learn from the field. Parasitology research, 109(5), 1225–32.

Annesley, T. M. (2003). Ion suppression in mass spectrometry. Clinical chemistry, 49(7), 1041–4.

Banaszynski, L. a, Chen, L.-C., Maynard-Smith, L. a, Ooi, a G. L., & Wandless, T. J. (2006). A rapid, reversible, and tunable method to regulate protein function in living cells using synthetic small molecules. Cell, 126(5), 995–1004.

Bañuls, A.-L., Hide, M., & Prugnolle, F. (2007). Leishmania and the leishmaniases: a parasite genetic update and advances in taxonomy, epidemiology and pathogenicity in humans. Advances in parasitology, 64, 1–109.

Barrett, M. P. (1997). The pentose phosphate pathway and parasitic protozoa. Parasitology today, 13(1), 11–16.

Bates, P. a, & Rogers, M. E. (2004). New insights into the developmental biology and transmission mechanisms of Leishmania. Current molecular medicine, 4(6), 601–9.

Berg, M., Vanaerschot, M., Jankevics, A., Cuypers, B., Breitling, R., & Dujardin, J. C. (2013). LC-MS metabolomics from study design to data-analysis–using a versatile pathogen as a test case. Computational and structural biotechnology journal, 4(5), 1–8.

Berg, M., Vanaerschot, M., Jankevics, A., Cuypers, B., Maes, I., Khanal, B., Rijal. S., Opperdoes, F., Breitling, R., & Dujardin, J. C.. Metabolic adaptations of Leishmania donovani in relation to differentiation, drug resistance, and drug pressure. Onder review.

Berger, B., Dai, W., Wang, H., Stark, R., & Cerami, A. (1996). Aromatic amino acid transamination and methionine recycling in trypanosomatids. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 93(April), 4126–4130.

Bhattarai, N. R., Van der Auwera, G., Rijal, S., Picado, A., Speybroeck, N., Khanal, B., … Dujardin, J. C. (2010). Domestic animals and epidemiology of visceral leishmaniasis, Nepal. Emerging infectious diseases, 16(2), 231–7.

Bogdan, C., & Röllinghoff, M. (1998). The immune response to Leishmania: mechanisms of parasite control and evasion. International journal for parasitology, 28(1), 121–34.

Bordier, C., Etges, R. J., Ward, J., Turner, M. J., & Cardoso de Almeida, M. L. (1986). Leishmania and Trypanosoma surface glycoproteins have a common glycophospholipid membrane anchor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 83(16), 5988–91.

Bouvier, J., Bordier, C., Vogel, H., & Reichelt, R. (1989). Characterization of the promastigote surface protease of Leishmania as a membrane-bound zinc endopeptidase. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 37, 235–245.

Bringaud, F., Barrett, M., & Zilberstein, D. (2012). Multiple roles of proline transport and metabolism in trypanosomatids. Frontiers in bioscience, 17, 349–374.

Brittingham, a, & Mosser, D. M. (1996). Exploitation of the complement system by Leishmania promastigotes. Parasitology today (Personal ed.), 12(11), 444–7.

Carneiro, M., Moreno, E. C., Gonçalves, A. V., Lambertucci, J. R., & Antunes, C. M. F. (2011). Visceral Leishmaniasis: Challenges in identifying subclinical Leishmania infection. Drug Development Research, 72(6), 442–450.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/leishmaniasis/biology.html

Chandra, D., & Naik, S. (2008). Leishmania donovani infection down-regulates TLR2-stimulated IL-12p40 and activates IL-10 in cells of macrophage/monocytic lineage by modulating MAPK pathways through a contact-dependent mechanism. Clinical and experimental immunology, 154(2), 224–34.

Chang, K. P. (1979). Leishmania donovani: promastigote--macrophage surface interactions in vitro. Experimental parasitology, 48(2), 175–89.

Chappuis, F., Rijal, S., Soto, A., Menten, J., & Boelaert, M. (2006). A meta-analysis of the diagnostic performance of the direct agglutination test and rK39 dipstick for visceral leishmaniasis. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 333(7571), 723.

Chatelain, R., Varkila, K., & Coffman, R. (1992). IL-4 induces a Th2 response in Leishmania major-infected mice. J. Immunol., 148(4), 1182–1187.

Chawla, B., Jhingran, A., Panigrahi, A., Stuart, K. D., & Madhubala, R. (2011). Paromomycin affects translation and vesicle-mediated trafficking as revealed by proteomics of paromomycin -susceptible -resistant Leishmania donovani. PloS one, 6(10), e26660.

Chunge, C. N., Owate, J., Pamba, H. O., & Donno, L. (1990). Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in Kenya by aminosidine alone or combined with sodium stibogluconate. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 84(2), 221–5.

Creek, Darren, Jankevics, A., Merlo, M. E., Vries, M., Vonk, R. J., Takano, E., & Breitling, R. (2012). IDEOM: An excel interface for analysis of LC-MS based metabolomics data. Bioinformatics, 28(7), 1048–1049.

Creek, DJ, Jankevics, A., Breitling, R., Watson, D. G., Barrett, M. P., & Burgess, K. E. V. (2011). Toward Global Metabolomics Analysis with Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid ChromatographyMass Spectrometry: Improved Metabolite Identification by Retention Time Prediction. Analytical Chemistry-, 83, 8703–8710.

Croft, S. L., Seifert, K., & Duchêne, M. (2003). Antiprotozoal activities of phospholipid analogues. Molecular and biochemical parasitology, 126(2), 165–72.

Croft, S. L., Sundar, S., & Fairlamb, A. H. (2006). Drug Resistance in Leishmaniasis. Society, 19(1), 111–126.

Cunningham, M. L., & Fairlamb, a H. (1995). Trypanothione reductase from Leishmania donovani. Purification, characterisation and inhibition by trivalent antimonials. European journal of biochemistry / FEBS, 230(2), 460–8.

Davis, B. D. (1987). Mechanism of bactericidal action of aminoglycosides. Microbiological reviews, 51(3), 341–50.

Decuypere, S., Rijal, S., Yardley, V., Doncker, S. De, Laurent, T., & Khanal, B. (2005). Gene Expression Analysis of the Mechanism of Natural Sb ( V ) Resistance in Leishmania donovani Isolates from Nepal. Society, 49(11), 4616–4621.

Denton, H., McGregor, J. C., & Coombs, G. H. (2004). Reduction of anti-leishmanial pentavalent antimonial drugs by a parasite-specific thiol-dependent reductase, TDR1. The Biochemical journal, 381(Pt 2), 405–12.

Descoteaux, A., & Turco, S. J. (2002). Functional aspects of the Leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan during macrophage infection. Microbes and infection / Institut Pasteur, 4(9), 975–81.

Desjardins, B. M., & Descoteaux, A. (1997). Inhibition of Phagolysosomal Biogenesis by the Leishmania Lipophosphoglycan. Cell, 185(12), 2613 – 2620.

Dey, S., Ouellette, M., Lightbody, J., Papadopoulou, B., & Rosen, B. P. (1996). An ATP-dependent As(III)-glutathione transport system in membrane vesicles of Leishmania tarentolae. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 93(5), 2192–7.

Dorlo, T. P. C., Van Thiel, P. P. a M., Huitema, A. D. R., Keizer, R. J., De Vries, H. J. C., Beijnen, J. H., & De Vries, P. J. (2008). Pharmacokinetics of miltefosine in Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis patients. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, 52(8), 2855–60.

Ferreira, C. D. S., Martins, P. S., Demicheli, C., Brochu, C., Ouellette, M., & Frézard, F. (2003). Thiol-induced reduction of antimony(V) into antimony(III): a comparative study with trypanothione, cysteinyl-glycine, cysteine and glutathione. Biometals : an international journal on the role of metal ions in biology, biochemistry, and medicine, 16(3), 441–6.

Forget, G., Gregory, D. J., Whitcombe, L. a, & Olivier, M. (2006). Role of host protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 in Leishmania donovani-induced inhibition of nitric oxide production. Infection and immunity, 74(11), 6272–9.

García-Hernández, R., Manzano, J. I., Castanys, S., & Gamarro, F. (2012). Leishmania donovani develops resistance to drug combinations. PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 6(12), e1974.

Ghalib, H. W., Piuvezam, M. R., Skeiky, Y. a, Siddig, M., Hashim, F. a, el-Hassan, a M., … Reed, S. G. (1993). Interleukin 10 production correlates with pathology in human Leishmania donovani infections. The Journal of clinical investigation, 92(1), 324–9.

Gomez, M., Contreras, I., Hallé, M., Tremblay, M. L., McMaster, R. W., & Olivier, M. (2009). Leishmania GP63 alters host signaling through cleavage-activated protein tyrosine phosphatases. Science signaling, 2(September), 1–12.

Gourbal, B., Sonuc, N., Bhattacharjee, H., Legare, D., Sundar, S., Ouellette, M., … Mukhopadhyay, R. (2004). Drug uptake and modulation of drug resistance in Leishmania by an aquaglyceroporin. The Journal of biological chemistry, 279(30), 31010–7.

Guerin, P. J., Olliaro, P., Sundar, S., Boelaert, M., Croft, S. L., Desjeux, P., … Bryceson, A. D. M. (2002). Personal view Visceral leishmaniasis Visceral leishmaniasis : current status of control , diagnosis , and treatment , and a proposed research and development agenda Personal view. The Lancet, 2(August), 494–501.

Haase, R., Wieder, T., Geilen, C., & Reutter, W. (1991). hexadecylphosphocholine inhibits biosynthesis in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells analogue. Lipids, 288(1), 129–132.

Handman, E., & Goding, J. W. (1985). The Leishmania receptor for macrophages is a lipid-containing glycoconjugate. The EMBO journal, 4(2), 329–36. Hartsel, S., & Bolard, J. (1996). Amphotericin B: new life for an old drug. Trends in pharmacological sciences, 17(12), 445–9.

Herman, J., Gallalee, J., & Best, J. (1987). Sodium stibogluconate (pentostam) inhibition of glucose catabolism via the glycolytic pathway, and fatty acid β-oxidation in leishmania mexicana amastigotes. Biochemical pharmacology, 36(2), 197–201.

Inbar, E., Schlisselberg, D., Suter Grotemeyer, M., Rentsch, D., & Zilberstein, D. (2013). A versatile proline/alanine transporter in the unicellular pathogen Leishmania donovani regulates amino acid homoeostasis and osmotic stress responses. The Biochemical journal, 449(2), 555–66.

Jankevics, A., Merlo, M. E., De Vries, M., Vonk, R. J., Takano, E., & Breitling, R. (2012). Separating the wheat from the chaff: a prioritisation pipeline for the analysis of metabolomics datasets. Metabolomics : Official journal of the Metabolomic Society, 8(Suppl 1), 29–36.

Jhingran, A., Chawla, B., Saxena, S., Barrett, M. P., & Madhubala, R. (2009). Paromomycin: uptake and resistance in Leishmania donovani. Molecular and biochemical parasitology, 164(2), 111–117.

Khalil, E. a G., Zijlstra, E. E., Kager, P. a, & El Hassan, a M. (2002). Epidemiology and clinical manifestations of Leishmania donovani infection in two villages in an endemic area in eastern Sudan. Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH, 7(1), 35–44.

Kompare, M., & Rizzo, W. B. (2008). Mitochondrial fatty-acid oxidation disorders. Seminars in pediatric neurology, 15(3), 140–9.

Krauth-Siegel, R. L., & Comini, M. a. (2008). Redox control in trypanosomatids, parasitic protozoa with trypanothione-based thiol metabolism. Biochimica et biophysica acta, 1780(11), 1236–48.

Lamy-Freund, M. T., Ferreira, V. F., & Schreier, S. (1989). Polydispersity of aggregates formed by the polyene antibiotic amphotericin B and deoxycholate. A spin label study. Biochimica et biophysica acta, 981(2), 207–12.

Légaré, D., Richard, D., Mukhopadhyay, R., Stierhof, Y. D., Rosen, B. P., Haimeur, a, … Ouellette, M. (2001). The Leishmania ATP-binding cassette protein PGPA is an intracellular metal-thiol transporter ATPase. The Journal of biological chemistry, 276(28), 26301–7.

Lodge, R., Diallo, T. O., & Descoteaux, A. (2006). Leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan blocks NADPH oxidase assembly at the phagosome membrane. Cellular microbiology, 8(12), 1922–31.

Lux, H., Heise, N., Klenner, T., Hart, D., & Opperdoes, F. R. (2000). Ether--lipid (alkyl-phospholipid) metabolism and the mechanism of action of ether--lipid analogues in Leishmania. Molecular and biochemical parasitology, 111(1), 1–14.

Maarouf, M., Adeline, M., Solignac, M., Vautrin, D., & Robert-Gero, M. (1998). Development and characterization of paromomycin-resistant Leishmania donovani promastigotes. Parasite, 5, 167–173.

Maarouf, M., Lawrence, F., & Brown, S. (1997). Biochemical alterations in paromomycin-treated Leishmania donovani promastigotes. Parasitology research, 198–202.

Mallia, A. K., Frovenzano, M. D., Fujimoto, E. K., Olson, B. J., Klenk, D. C., & Company, P. C. (1985). Measurement of Protein Using Bicinchoninic Acid ’, 85, 76–85.

Mandal, G., Wyllie, S., Singh, N., Sundar, S., Fairlamb, a H., & Chatterjee, M. (2007). Increased levels of thiols protect antimony unresponsive Leishmania donovani field isolates against reactive oxygen species generated by trivalent antimony. Parasitology, 134(Pt 12), 1679–87.

Mandal, S., Maharjan, M., Singh, S., Chatterjee, M., & Madhubala, R. (2010). Assessing aquaglyceroporin gene status and expression profile in antimony-susceptible and -resistant clinical isolates of Leishmania donovani from India. The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, 65(3), 496–507.

Marinho, F. D. A., Gonçalves, K. C. D. S., Oliveira, S. S. De, Oliveira, A.-C. D. S. C. De, Bellio, M., d’Avila-Levy, C. M., … Branquinha, M. H. (2011). Miltefosine induces programmed cell death in Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 106(4), 507–9.

Matysik, J., Bhalu, B., & Mohanty, P. (2002). Molecular mechanisms of quenching of reactive oxygen species by proline under stress in plants, 82(5).

Mbongo, N., Loiseau, P., Billion, M. A., & Robert-Gero, M. (1998). Mechanism of Amphotericin B Resistance inLeishmania donovani Promastigotes. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, 42(2), 352–357.

McConville, M. J., Turco, S. J., Ferguson, M. a, & Sacks, D. L. (1992). Developmental modification of lipophosphoglycan during the differentiation of Leishmania major promastigotes to an infectious stage. The EMBO journal, 11(10), 3593–600.

Meheus, F., Balasegaram, M., Olliaro, P., Sundar, S., Rijal, S., Faiz, M. A., & Boelaert, M. (2010). Cost-effectiveness analysis of combination therapies for visceral leishmaniasis in the Indian subcontinent. PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 4(9).

Melaku, Y., Collin, S. M., Keus, K., Gatluak, F., Ritmeijer, K., & Davidson, R. N. (2007). Treatment of kala-azar in southern Sudan using a 17-day regimen of sodium stibogluconate combined with paromomycin: a retrospective comparison with 30-day sodium stibogluconate monotherapy. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 77(1), 89–94.

Mittal, M. K., Rai, S., Ashutosh, Ravinder, Gupta, S., Sundar, S., & Goyal, N. (2007). Characterization of natural antimony resistance in Leishmania donovani isolates. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 76(4), 681–8.

Mondal, S., Bhattacharya, P., & Ali, N. (2010). Current diagnosis and treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Expert review of anti-infective therapy, 8(8), 919–44.

Mosser, D. M., & Brittingham, a. (1997). Leishmania, macrophages and complement: a tale of subversion and exploitation. Parasitology, 115 Suppl, S9–23.

Mukhopadhyay, R., Mukherjee, S., Mukherjee, B., Naskar, K., Mondal, D., Decuypere, S., … Roy, S. (2011). Characterisation of antimony-resistant Leishmania donovani isolates: biochemical and biophysical studies and interaction with host cells. International journal for parasitology, 41(13-14), 1311–21.

Murray, H W. (1999). Kala-azar as an AIDS-related opportunistic infection. AIDS patient care and STDs, 13(8), 459–65.

Murray, Henry W, Berman, J. D., Davies, C. R., & Saravia, N. G. (2005). Advances in leishmaniasis. Lancet, 366(9496), 1561–77.

Murray, Henry W, Oca, M. J., Granger, A. M., & Schreiber, R. D. (1989). Requirement for T Cells and Effect of Lymphokines in Successful Chemotherapy for an Intracellular Infection. Chemotherapy, 83(April), 1253–1257.

Nandan, D., & Reiner, N. E. (2005). Leishmania donovani engages in regulatory interference by targeting macrophage protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1. Clinical immunology (Orlando, Fla.), 114(3), 266–77.

Nandan, D., Tran, T., Trinh, E., Silverman, J. M., & Lopez, M. (2007). Identification of leishmania fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase as a novel activator of host macrophage Src homology 2 domain containing protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1. Biochemical and biophysical research communications, 364(3), 601–7.

Ostyn, B., Gidwani, K., Khanal, B., Picado, A., Chappuis, F., Singh, S. P., … Boelaert, M. (2011). Incidence of symptomatic and asymptomatic Leishmania donovani infections in high-endemic foci in India and Nepal: a prospective study. PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 5(10), e1284.

Ouakad, M., Vanaerschot, M., Rijal, S., Sundar, S., Speybroeck, N., Kestens, L., … Dujardin, J.-C. (2011). Increased metacyclogenesis of antimony-resistant Leishmania donovani clinical lines. Parasitology, 138(11), 1392–9.

Paila, Y. D., Saha, B., & Chattopadhyay, A. (2010). Amphotericin B inhibits entry of Leishmania donovani into primary macrophages. Biochemical and biophysical research communications, 399(3), 429–33.

Paris, C., Loiseau, P. M., & Bories, C. (2004). Miltefosine Induces Apoptosis-Like Death in Leishmania donovani Promastigotes. Society, 48(3), 852–859.

Parsons, M. (2004). Glycosomes: parasites and the divergence of peroxisomal purpose. Molecular microbiology, 53(3), 717–24.

Pathak, M. K., & Yi, T. (2001). Sodium stibogluconate is a potent inhibitor of protein tyrosine phosphatases and augments cytokine responses in hemopoietic cell lines. Journal of immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950), 167(6), 3391–7.

Pérez-Morga, D., & Englund, P. T. (1993). The structure of replicating kinetoplast DNA networks. The Journal of cell biology, 123(5), 1069–79.

Pérez-Victoria, F. J., Santiago, C., & Gamarro, F. (2003). Leishmania donovani resistance to miltefosine involves a defective inward translocation of the drug. Antimicrobial agents and and chemotherapy, 47(8), 2397–2403.

Pérez-Victoria, J. M., Pérez-Victoria, J., Parodi-Talice, A., Jiménez, I. A., Ravelo, A. G., Santiago, C., & Gamarro, F. (2001). Alkyl-lysophospholipid resistance in multidrug-resistant Leishmania tropica and chemosensitization by a novel P-glycoprotein-like transporter modulator. Antimicrobial agents, 45(9), 2468–2474.

Peters, W. (1981). The treatment of kala-azar--new approaches to an old problem. The Indian journal of medical research, 73(Jan), Suppl:1-18.

Piedrafita, D., Proudfoot, L., Nikolaev, a V, Xu, D., Sands, W., Feng, G. J., … Liew, F. Y. (1999). Regulation of macrophage IL-12 synthesis by Leishmania phosphoglycans. European journal of immunology, 29(1), 235–44.

Prajapati, V. K., Sharma, S., Rai, M., Ostyn, B., Salotra, P., Vanaerschot, M., … Sundar, S. (2013). In vitro susceptibility of Leishmania donovani to Miltefosine in Indian Visceral Leishmaniasis. American journal of tropical medicine & hygiene, accepted.

Puentes, S., Sacks, D., & Silva, R. da. (1988). Complement binding by two developmental stages of Leishmania major promastigotes varying in expression of a surface lipophosphoglycan. The Journal of Experimentel Medicine, 167(March).

Purkait, B., Kumar, A., Nandi, N., Sardar, A. H., Das, S., Kumar, S., … Das, P. (2012). Mechanism of amphotericin B resistance in clinical isolates of Leishmania donovani. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, 56(2), 1031–41.

Rakotomanga, M., Saint-Pierre-Chazalet, M., & Loiseau, P. M. (2005). Alteration of fatty acid and sterol metabolism in miltefosine-resistant Leishmania donovani promastigotes and consequences for drug-membrane interactions. Antimicrobial agents, 49(7), 2677–2686.

Rijal, S, Chappuis, F., Singh, R., Bovier, P. a, Acharya, P., Karki, B. M. S., … Koirala, S. (2003). Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in south-eastern Nepal: decreasing efficacy of sodium stibogluconate and need for a policy to limit further decline. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 97(3), 350–4.

Rijal, Suman, Ostyn, B., & Uranw, S. (2013). Increasing failure of miltefosine in the treatment of kala-azar in Nepal and the potential role of parasite drug resistance, re-infection or non-compliance. Clinical Infectious Diseases, Advance Ac, 1–26.

Rosenzweig, D., Smith, D., Opperdoes, F., Stern, S., Olafson, R. W., & Zilberstein, D. (2008). Retooling Leishmania metabolism: from sand fly gut to human macrophage. FASEB journal, 22(2), 590–602.

Russell, D., & Wilhelm, H. (1986). The involvement of the major surface glycoprotein (gp63) of Leishmania promastigotes in attachment to macrophages. The journal of immunology, 136(7), 2613 – 2620.

Sacks, D., Pimenta, P., & McConville, M. (1995). Stage-specific binding of Leishmania donovani to the sand fly vector midgut is regulated by conformational changes in the abundant surface lipophosphoglycan. The Journal of Experimentel Medicine, 181(February), 685–697.

Scheltema, R., Decuypere, S., & Dujardin, J. (2009). Simple data-reduction method for high-resolution LC-MS data in metabolomics. Bioanalysis, 1(9), 1–7.

Schlein, Y., Jacobson, R. L., & Shlomai, J. (1991). Chitinase secreted by Leishmania functions in the sandfly vector. Proceedings. Biological sciences / The Royal Society, 245(1313), 121–6.

Schrader, E., Wilmington, S., & Matouschek, A. (2010). Making it easier to regulate protein stability. Chemistry & biology, 17(9), 917–918.

Shakarian, a M., & Dwyer, D. M. (2000). Pathogenic leishmania secrete antigenically related chitinases which are encoded by a highly conserved gene locus. Experimental parasitology, 94(4), 238–42.

Singh, S. (2006). New developments in diagnosis of leishmaniasis. The Indian journal of medical research, 123(3), 311–30.

Sundar, S. (2001). Drug resistance in Indian visceral leishmaniasis. Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH, 6(11), 849–54.

Sundar, S, Chakravarty, J., Agarwal, D., Rai, M., & Murray, H. W. (2010). Single-dose liposomal amphotericin B for visceral leishmaniasis in India. England Journal of Medcine, 362(6), 504–512.

Sundar, Shyam, Agrawal, N., Arora, R., Agarwal, D., Rai, M., & Chakravarty, J. (2009). Short-course paromomycin treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in India: 14-day vs 21-day treatment. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, 49(6), 914–8.

Sundar, Shyam, Jha, T., & Thakur, C. (2007). Injectable paromomycin for visceral leishmaniasis in India. The new England Journal of Medicine, 356(25), 2571–2581.

Sundar, Shyam, More, D. K., Singh, M. K., Singh, V. P., Sharma, S., Makharia, A., … Murray, H. W. (2000). Failure of pentavalent antimony in visceral leishmaniasis in India: report from the center of the Indian epidemic. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, 31(4), 1104–7.

Sundar, Shyam, Singh, A., Rai, M., Prajapati, V. K., Singh, A. K., Ostyn, B., … Chakravarty, J. (2012). Efficacy of miltefosine in the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in India after a decade of use. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, 55(4), 543–50.

Sundar, Shyam, Sinha, P. K., Rai, M., Verma, D. K., Nawin, K., Alam, S., … Modabber, F. (2011). Comparison of short-course multidrug treatment with standard therapy for visceral leishmaniasis in India: an open-label, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 377(9764), 477–86.

T’Kindt, R., Jankevics, A., Scheltema, R. a, Zheng, L., Watson, D. G., Dujardin, J.-C., … Decuypere, S. (2010). Towards an unbiased metabolic profiling of protozoan parasites: optimisation of a Leishmania sampling protocol for HILIC-orbitrap analysis. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry, 398(5), 2059–69.

Teklemariam, S., Hiwot, a G., Frommel, D., Miko, T. L., Ganlov, G., & Bryceson, a. (1994). Aminosidine and its combination with sodium stibogluconate in the treatment of diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania aethiopica. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 88(3), 334–9.

Thakur, C. P., Kanyok, T. P., Pandey, a K., Sinha, G. P., Zaniewski, a E., Houlihan, H. H., & Olliaro, P. (2000). A prospective randomized, comparative, open-label trial of the safety and efficacy of paromomycin (aminosidine) plus sodium stibogluconate versus sodium stibogluconate alone for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 94(4), 429–31.

Uranw, S., Ostyn, B., Rijal, A., Devkota, S., Khanal, B., Menten, J., … Rijal, S. (2011). Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis in Nepal: a retrospective cohort study (2000-2010). PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 5(12), e1433.

Van Griensven, J., & Boelaert, M. (2011). Combination therapy for visceral leishmaniasis. Lancet, 377(9764), 443–4.

Vanaerschot, M., De Doncker, S., Rijal, S., Maes, L., Dujardin, J.-C., & Decuypere, S. (2011). Antimonial resistance in Leishmania donovani is associated with increased in vivo parasite burden. PloS one, 6(8), e23120.

Vega, N., Allison, K., Khalil, A., & Collins, J. (2012). Signaling-mediated bacterial persister formation. Nature chemical biology, 8(5), 431–433.

WHO. (2010). Working to overcome the global impact of neglected tropical diseases: First WHO report on neglected tropical diseases. World Health Organisation.

Wilson, M. E., Young, B. M., Davidson, B. L., Mente, K. a, & McGowan, S. E. (1998). The importance of TGF-beta in murine visceral leishmaniasis. Journal of immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950), 161(11), 6148–55.

Wyllie, S., Cunningham, M. L., & Fairlamb, A. H. (2004). Dual action of antimonial drugs on thiol redox metabolism in the human pathogen Leishmania donovani. The Journal of biological chemistry, 279(38), 39925–32.

Yan, S., Li, F., Ding, K., & Sun, H. (2003). Reduction of pentavalent antimony by trypanothione and formation of a binary and ternary complex of antimony(III) and trypanothione. Journal of biological inorganic chemistry : JBIC : a publication of the Society of Biological Inorganic Chemistry, 8(6), 689–97.

Zhou, Y., Messier, N., Ouellette, M., Rosen, B. P., & Mukhopadhyay, R. (2004). Leishmania major LmACR2 is a pentavalent antimony reductase that confers sensitivity to the drug pentostam. The Journal of biological chemistry, 279(36), 37445–51.

Zijlstra, E. E., Musa, A. M., Khalil, E. A. G., & Hassan, I. M. El. (2003). Review Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. The Lancet, 3(February), 87–98.

Zilberstein, D., & Gepstein, a. (1993). Regulation of L-proline transport in Leishmania donovani by extracellular pH. Molecular and biochemical parasitology, 61(2), 197–205.

 

Handleidingen technische materiaal

1.        Thermo Scientific. Orbitrap Technology – Principle of Operation. Beschikbaar op:http://planetorbitrap.com/pdf/88415_PO30208E_12_09.pdf.

2.        Thermo Scientific. Datasheet Exactive. Beschikbaar op:http://www.thermoscientific.com/ecomm/servlet/techresource?storeId=1115….

3.        Thermo Scientific (2008). Users Guide HESI-II Probe. Beschikbaar op:http://www.thermo.com/eThermo/CMA/PDFs/Various/File_50898.pdf.

Websites

Biovenn tool. Beschikbaar op: http://www.cmbi.ru.nl/cdd/biovenn/

Chemspider. Beschikbaar op: http://www.chemspider.com.

Lipidmaps database. Beschikbaar op: http://www.lipidmaps.org/

 

Download scriptie (8.31 MB)
Universiteit of Hogeschool
Universiteit Antwerpen
Thesis jaar
2013