SciMingo helpt onderzoekers het juiste evenwicht te vinden tussen complexiteit en begrijpelijkheid in wetenschapscommunicatie. Zo leren we je hoe je mensen aanspreekt zonder afbreuk te doen aan je onderzoek. Als volleerde flamingo's, meesters in evenwicht 🦩
Mara Wetland Becomes Dryland
Ewald
Bogers
This thesis describes how the social-ecological system around the Mara wetlands has changed during the previous five decades. These wetlands are mainly fed by the Mara River, which has its sources in the Kenyan Mau Escarpment. After flowing through two worldfamous wildlife parks (Serengeti and Maasai Mara), it continues in the downstream Tanzanian Mara wetlands and finally flows out in Lake Victoria.
The major focus of this thesis is on how the riparian Wakenye people in Northwest Tanzania have adapted their livelihoods to the changing context. The most prominent dynamics have derived from larger scales and are found in a rapid expansion of the Mara wetlands and the vanishing of the traditional institutions (Institutions are here defined as: all knowledge, discourses, regulations, norms, values and ideas that influence human behaviour).
In downstream Tanzania, the trade-offs from upstream merge with numerous other variables that have contributed to larger and prolonged inundations. Among these variables, local land use, fluctuating water level in Lake Victoria, two social-ecological feedback mechanisms and climatic events (e.g. El Niño) seem to have contributed to a constantly changing hydrological system in the wetlands. This constantly changing hydrology has pushed the local vegetation cover into successive regimes: from dryland to forest and eventually into papyrus wetland. Because the hydrology is the driving variable in these regime shifts, the subsequence of regimes differs in time and place according to the local water quantity. From the 1960s until the 1990s, the rapid pace of these ‘creative destructive’ regime shifts created mainly opportunities for the Wakenye. In particular, the enlargements of open water bodies and forests turned out positively for the livelihoods of these riparian people.
However, growing populations of crocodiles, (malaria) mosquitoes, weavers (that destroy crops) and hippos are mostly experienced as threatening or harmful by locals. Moreover, from 1990s onwards, the regime shifts in the wetland ecology turned out more negative for the Wakenye: open water bodies started to silt-up and waterweeds have replaced pasture and forests. Consequently, the Wakenye shifted their livelihood activities regarding forest and pasture resources from the wetland area towards the uplands and hills. This change in land use has led to an increasing competition and more prominent trade-offs between livelihood activities. Together with some other variables (e.g. increase in rainfall variability and vanishing of socialist subsidies), these trade-offs have contributed to undesirable conservation phases in four important livelihood activities (animal keeping, crop cultivation, fisheries and use of forest resources).
The local people haven not been able to reorganize the local institutions according to the fluctuations in natural resources. This lack of reorganizing capacity is not only linked to the rapid ecological regime shifts, but also to institutional dynamics that have derived from larger scales. The local institutional setting in the Mara region has been affected a great deal by influences of colonial rule, Christianization and modernization. Eventually, the socialist Ujamaa Villagization Program in the 1970s triggered a release phase in the local institutions regarding natural resources. Consequently, the hill forest became openly accessible for a rapidly growing population. The newly available wetland resources and subsidies from the socialist government first compensated the increasing demand for natural resources. These compensations seem to have contributed to a postponement of institutional reorganization. When the wetland dynamics became more negative for the Wakenye during the 1990s, the institutions were still in vacuum. This vacuum, together with scarcity of resources and a low degree of homogeneity with regard to the dependency towards natural resources, has made any attempt in reorganization difficult.
The regime shifts in the wetland ecology during the 1990s also provided new opportunities. Newly emerged resources have been successfully linked to newly emerged markets and people started to experiment with the larger availability of (ground) water in crop cultivation. Moreover, a number of new livelihood activities have added to the possible options of the livelihoods and hence help to diversify the activities. This strategy contributes to the livelihood sustainability. All newly found activities have derived from interaction between scales in which individual locals preferred an enterprising attitude above prevailing community conservatism.
However, even though there are some signs of transitions in the livelihood system from the Wakenye, the main livelihood activities are still practiced on an equivalent way as 50 years ago. These livelihood activities seem to be stuck in conservation phases. For this reason we cannot speak about a regime shift in the local livelihood system, while the institutional and ecological settings have undergone (several) regime shifts. This results in a mismatch between the livelihoods of the Wakenye and their context. This mismatch does create problems in the present, but also reveals opportunities for renewal. Features that seem to disable renewal or reorganization in livelihood activities are presumed to be connected to factors as a low degree of institutional bias for innovation and multiple functions of livelihood activities.
A number of interventions in the local system have improved the livelihood sustainability. These interventions introduced new livelihood resources or activities (e.g. water dams and irrigation farms), injected knowledge or means, or provided assistance in reshaping the institutions. The outcomes of interventions in local institutional reorganization phases have shown to be unpredictable: both progress and regress belong to the possibilities. For these reasons, a certain degree of trial and error appears inevitably. However, a number of features of the interventions show the potential to prevent regress and stimulate progress. The features of the successful intervention all share a combination of bonding and bridging social capital (on multiple-scales), redundancies, tight feedbacks or intensive involvement. Bonding social capital appears to reduce individual vulnerability and bridging increases the possible inputs of knowledge and means. Redundancies, multi-scale features and tight feedbacks all function to catch-up with the unforeseen outcomes. Moreover, a synthesis between bonding and bridging on multiple scales seems to have the potential to tackle the problems of interventions or initiatives that are
designed either only internally (‘bottom-up’) or only externally (‘top-down’). A synthesis
between internally and externally designed approaches seems to be the most suitable to
accomplish successfully reorganization in order to increase the livelihood sustainability.
Even though there are various reasons to describe some local components around the
expanding wetland as negative for the Wakenye (e.g. increase in aquatic plants, dangerous
animals and malaria mosquitoes), it is important to remain careful with social-ecological
engineering. There exists a high degree of interconnectedness between the various socialecological
components around the wetland expansion. This complexity is further enlarged by
the social heterogeneity in dependency to the wetland functions (on multiple scales) and
services and the interconnectedness of the social relations.
In the perspective of upstream-downstream environmental justice issues, it should be
noted that the effects of livelihoods upstream merge with a large number of other variables in
the wetland ecology and that, therefore, any definite assessment about upstream-downstream
effects stays beyond the scope of this research. However, the assumed role of papyrus (and
other wetland vegetation) in trapping and retaining sediments may be of vital importance for
people that live near the river mouth. It remains difficult to weight the value of this function
with the observed predominant disadvantages of this vegetation cover for the riparian villages.
Moreover, even though the local disadvantages of this vegetation cover seem to outweigh the
local advantages (compared with the previous cover: forest), it should be noted that the ‘poor’
seem to have benefited more from this change than the ‘rich’ (the poor practice more papyrus
mat-making and the rich keep more cattle, and pasture has been replaced by papyruses).
Nonetheless, it can be stated that the livelihood system of the Wakenye has not been
able to adapt in a sustainable way to the highly dynamic context. A larger adaptive capacity of
the livelihood systems in these villages will not only contribute to the sustainability of the
locally based livelihood system. Also the sustainability of the livelihoods upstream could be
improved by better local adaptations, in the sense that their trade-offs may be received more
positively.
Bibliografie
R
EFERENCES
Acharya, G. (2000). Approaches to Valuing the Hidden Hydrological Services of Wetland
Ecosystem.
Adger, W.N. (2000). Social and Ecological Resilience: Are They Related?
Human Geography
Agrawal, A. & C.C. Gibson, (1999). Enchantment and Disenchantment: The Role of
Community in Natural Resource Conservation.
Awer, M., D. Ombara, & D. Koros (2004). Dialogue Process on the Mara River in Kenya.
Ecological Economics 35, pp. 63-74.Progress in24 (3), pp. 347-364.World Development 27 (4), pp. 629-649.
WWF Dialogue Bulletin
files/Dialogues/Africa/infosheet_kenya marariver.htm
Baland, J.M. & J.P. Platteau (1998). Division of the Commons: A Partial Assessment of the
New Institutional Economics of Land Rights Source.
Economics
Balirwa, S.J. (1995). The Lake Victoria Environment: Its Fisheries and Wetlands – A Review.
6, August. Available online: http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/dialogue/(Accessed on 24 May 2007).American Journal of Agricultural80 (3), pp: 644-656.
Wetlands Ecology and Management
Belnap, J., J.R. Welter, N.B. Grimm, N. Barger & J. Ludwig (2005). Linkages Betyween
Microbial and Hydrological Processes in Arid and Semiarid Watersheds.
pp.298-307.
Berkes F. (2003). Cross-Scale Institutional Linkages: Perspectives from the Bottom up. In:
Ostrom, E., T. Dietz, N. Dolsak, P.C Stern, S. Stonich & E.U. Weber, eds.
Commons
Berkes, F. & C. Folke (1998).
and Social Mechanism for Building Resilience
Berkes, F. & C. Folke (2002). Back to the Future: Ecosystem Dynamics and Local
Knowledge. In: Gunderson L.H. & C.S. Holling eds. (2002).
Transformations in Human and Natural Systems
Berkes, F., J. Colding, & C. Folke, eds. (2003).
Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change
University Press.
Bernstein, H. & P. Woodhouse (2000). Whose Environment Whose Livelihoods? In:
Woodhouse, P., H. Bernstein & D. Hulme.
Wetlands in Drylands
Bickerstaff, K. (2004). Risk Perception Research: Socio-cultural Perspectives on the Public
Experience of Air Pollution.
Boserup, E. (1965).
Population Pressure
3 (4), pp. 209-224.Ecology 86 (2),The Drama of the, pp. 293-323. Washington: National Academy Press.Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Management Practices. Cambridge: University Press.Panarchy: Understanding.Washington: Covelo, London: Island Press.Navigating Social–Ecological. Cambridge, UK CambridgeAfrican Enclosures? The Social Dynamics of, pp. 195-213. Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World Press, Inc.Environnent International 30, pp. 827-840.The Conditions of Agriculture: The Economics of Agrarian Change under. Chicago: Aldine Publisher.
152
Boserup, E. (1990).
Boserup: Essays selected and Introduced by T. Paul Schultz.
Hopkins University Press.
Brons, J., T. Dietz, A. Niehof, & K. Witsenburg (forthcoming).
of Livelihoods in Less-favoured areas: Interplay between the Individual and the Collective.
Economic and Demographic Relationships in Development / EsterBaltimore, MD: The JohnsDimensions of Vulnerability
Bucceri A, & M. Fink (2003).
Science and Politics of International Freshwater Management 2003/04. Available online:
Case Study Lake Victoria. Paper presented on: ETH Seminar:
http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/seminars/Case%20studies/2003/Lake_V…
(Accessed on 24 May 2007).
Bugengo, J. (1973). Ujamaa in Mara Region.
annual social science conference
Burger, J. & M. Gochfeld (1998) ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’,
Carney, D. (1998). Implementing the Sustainable Livelihood Approach. In Carney, D. (ed)
Council for the Social Sciences in East Africa:. 1, pp. 229-246.Environment 40 (10): 6-27.
Sustainable Rural livelihoods: What Contribution Can We Make
International Development, pp. 3-22.
Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Livelihoods: Whose Reality Counts?
Urbanisation
Chambers, R. (1990). Editorial Introduction: Vulnerability, Coping and Policy.
? London, Department forEnvironment and7(1), pp.173-190.IDS Bulletin
20 (2), pp. 1-7.
Chambers, R. & G.R. Conway (1992). Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for
the 21
Christiansson, C. & E. Tobisson (1989). Environmental Degradation as a Consequence of
Socio-Political Conflict in Eastern Mara Region, Tanzania. In: Hjoert af Ornas, A. and M.A.
Mohamed Salih, eds.
51-65. Sweden, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
Conway, D., E. Allison, R. Felstead & M. Goulden (2005). Rainfall Variability in East Africa:
Implications for Natural Resources Management and Livelihoods.
51, pp. 49-54.
Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., B. Hannon, K. Limburg, S.
Naeem, R.V. O’Neill, J. Paruelo, R.G. Raskin, P. Sutton & M. van den Belt (1997). The
Value of the World’s Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital.
Cox, S. J. B. (1985). No Tragedy of the Commons.
Cwikiel, W. (2003).
Protection
USA. Available online:
st Century. Discussion paper 296. London: IDS.Ecology and Politics, Environmental Stress and Security in Africa, pp.The Royal Society 363 (19)Nature 397, pp. 253-280.Environmental Ethnics 7, pp. 49-61.Michigan Wetlands – Yours to Protect: A Citizen’s Guide to Wetland(3rd Edition): Chapter three: Wetland Identification and Delineation. Michigan,www.michiganwetlands.org/citguide.html (Accessed 2 Nov. 2006).
153
De Haan, L. & A. Zoomers (2003). Development Geographies at the Crossroads of
Livelihood and Globalisation.
362.
De Haan, L. & A. Zoomers (2005). ‘Exploring the Frontier of Livelihood Research.
Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 3, pp. 350-
Development and Change
Dietz, T. (1996).
Geography
Dietz, T., Dolsak, N., Ostrom, E. & P.C. Stern (2002). The Drama of the Commons
(introduction). In: Ostrom, E., Dietz, T., Dolsak, N., Stern, P.C., Stonich, S. & E.U. Weber,
eds.
Dietz, T., E. Ostrom, & P.C. Stern, (2003). The Struggle to Govern the Commons.
36: 27-47.Entitlements to Natural Resources: Contours of Political Environmental. Utrecht: International Books.The Drama of the Commons, pp. 293-323. Washington: National Academy Press.Science
302, pp.1907-1912.
Dublin, H.T., A.R.E. Sinclair & J. McGlade (1990). Elephants and Fire as Causes of Multiple
Stable States in the Serengeti-Mara Woodlands.
1147-1164.
Ellis, F. (2000).
Oxford University Press.
Escobar, A. (1995).
World
Evans, R. (2007). A New Low: Lake Victoria’s Water Levels are Falling, Sparkling Concerns
that the Livelihoods of Thousands could be Affected.
Fedden, A. & C. Salvadori (1980).
London: Rex Collins.
Fleisher, F.L. (2000).
Frontier.
Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: The Emergence of a Perspective for Social-ecological System
Analyses.
Foucault, M. (1972).
London: Tavistock Publications Ltd.
Gereta, E.J., E. Wolanski & E.A.T. Chiombola (2003). A
Social and Economic Impacts on the Serengeti Ecosystem of the Developments in the Mara
River Catchments in Kenya
The Journal of Animal Ecology 59 (3), pp.Rural Livelihoods and Diversity in Developing Countries. Oxford/New York:Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third. Princeton: Princeton University Press.BBC Focus on Africa 18 (3), pp. 24-25.Peoples and Cultures of Kenya. Nairobi: Transafrica,Kuria Cattle Raiders, Violence and Vigilantism on the Tanzania/KenyaMichigan: The University of Michigan Press.Global Environmental Change. 16, pp. 253-267.The Archaeology of Knowledge. Translated by A.M. Sheridan Smith.ssessment of the Environmental,. Frankfurt: Zoologische Gesellschaft. Available online:
http://www.zgf.de/mitarbeiterbereich/pdf/AmalaStudy.pdf
Gibson, C.C., E. Ostrom & T.K. Ahn (1999). The Concept of Scale and the Global Dimension
of Change: A Survey.
(Accessed 15 Dec. 2006).Ecological Economics 32, pp. 217-239.
154
Glavovic, B., R. Scheyvens & J. Overton (2003).
Waves of Adversity, Layers of Resilience
New Zealand: Massey University.
GLOWS (Global Water and Sustainability Program) (2007).
online:
Publications: Maps. Availablehttp://www.globalwaters.net/glows/Publications/Maps/tabid/109/Default.a…
(Accessed on 27 Sept. 2007).
Giddens, A. (1984).
The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration.
Oxford: Polity Press.
Gichuki, N. (2003).
Synthesis Report
Goldman, M. (2003). Partitioned Nature, Privileged Knowledge: Community-based
Conservation in Tanzania.
Gray, L.C. & W.G. Moseley (2004). A Geographical Perspective on Poverty-environment
Interactions.
Gren, I.M., C. Folke, K. Turner & I. Batemen (1994). Primary and Secondary Values of
Wetland Ecosystems.
Gunderson L.H. & C.S. Holling eds. (2002).
Human and Natural Systems
Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons.
Heald, S. (2005). State, Law and Vigilantism in Northern Tanzania.
pp. 265-283.
Holling, C.S. (1973). Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems.
Ecology and Systematics
Holling, C. S. (1986). Resilience of Ecosystems; Local Surprise and Global Change. In: Clark
W.C. & R.E. Munn. eds. (1986)
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Holling, C.S. & L.H. Gunderson (2002). Resilience and Adaptive Cycles. In: Gunderson L.H.
& C.S. Holling .eds. (2002).
Natural Systems
Holling C.S., L.H. Gunderson & G.D. Peterson (2002). Sustainability and Panarchies. In:
Gunderson L.H. & C.S. Holling. eds. (2002).
human and natural systems
Homewood, K., E.F. Lambin, E. Coast, A. Kariuki, I. Kikula, J. Kivelia, M. Said, S. Serneels,
& M. Thompson (2001). Lang-term Changes in Serengeti-Mara Wildebeest and Land Cover:
Pastoralism, Population, or Policies?
Wetland Research in the Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya Part: Analysis and. Kampala: The Inter-University Council for East Africa, Funded by SIDASAREC.Development and Change 34(5), pp. 833-862.The Royal Geographical Society 171(1), pp. 9-23.Environmental and resource Economies. 4, pp. 55-74.Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in. Washington: Covelo, London: Island Press.Science 162, pp. 1243-1248.African Affairs 105/419,Annual Review of4, pp. 1–23.Sustainable Development of the Biosphere. pp. 292-317,Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and, pp. 32-49. Washington: Covelo, London: Island Press.Panarchy: Understanding transformations in, pp. p 95. Washington: Covelo, London: Island Press.PNAS 98 (22), pp. 12544-12549.
155
Hueting, R. & L. Reijnders (1998). Sustainability is an Objective Concept.
Economics
IUCN (World Conservation Union) (2007).
Available online:
2007).
Juntunen, A. (2001).
University of Oulu. Available online:
4312.pdf
Kassenga, G.R. (1997). A Descriptive Assessment of the Wetlands of the Lake Victoria Basin
in Tanzania.
Kideghesho, J.R., J.W. Nyahongo, S.N. Hassan, T.C Tarimo & N.E. Mbiji (2006). Factors
and Ecological Impacts of Wildlife Habitat Destruction in the Serengeti Ecosystem in
Northern Tanzania.
Kirby, J., P. O’keefe & C. Howorth (2001). Introduction: Rethinking Environment and
Development in Africa and Asia.
Kiyiapi, J.L. (1999).
University, Department of Forestry. Available online:
/kenya-4.doc
Kurtz, H.E. (2003). Scale Frames and Counter-scale Frames: Constructing the Problem of
Environmental Injustice.
Lambert, A. (2003).
Management Strategies at the River Basin Scale
Ecological27, pp.139-147.The Ongoing Destruction of a Precious Habitat.http://www.iucn.org/themes/wetlands/wetlands.html (Accessed on 28 Jan.Professional and Lay Care the Tanzanian Village of Ilembula. Oulu:http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514264312/ isbn 951426(Accessed 22 May 2007).Recourses, Conservation and Recycling 20, pp.127:141.Ajeam-Ragee 11, pp. 917-932.Land degradation and Development 12, pp.195-203.Transmara Forests: Conservation and Management Issues. Eldoret: Moiwww.worldbank.org/afr/afr_for/fulltext(Accessed on 27 Jul. 2007).Political Geography. 22, pp. 887-914.Economic Valuation of Wetlands: An Important Component of Wetland. Available online:
http://conservationfinance.org/Documents/CF_related_papers/Economic_val…
ds_19_May_2003.pdf
Leach, M., R. Mearns, & I. Scoones (1999). Environmental Entitlements: Dynamics and
Institutions in Community-Based Natural Resource Management.
pp. 225-247.
Lipton, M. & S. Maxwell (1992). The New Poverty Agenda: An Overview.
303
Little, E.C.S. (1979).
Literature.
(accessed 25 Oct. 2007).World Development 27(2),Discussion paper. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies.Handbook of Utilization of Aquatic Plants: A Review of WorldNew Zealand: Kerikere, Bays of Islands. Available from:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6862E/X6862E00.HTM
Machiwa, P.K. (2002).
Lake Victoria Environmental program (LVEMP) – Tanzania
WaterNet/Warsfa Symposium ‘Water Demand management for Sustainable Development’30-
31 October.
(Accessed 15 Oct. 2007).Water Quality Management and Sustainability: The Experience of. Dar es Salaam:
156
Malthus, T. (1798).
from:
Mati, B.M., S. Mutie, P. Home, F. Mtalo & H. Gadain (2005). Land Use Changes in the
Trounsboundery Mara Basin: A Threat to pristine Wildlife Sanctuaries in East-Africa. Paper
presented at the:
An Essay on the Principle of Population. London: J. Johnson. Availablehttp://www.econlib.org/library/Malthus/malPop.html (Accessed on 25 Jul. 2007).8th International River Symposium, Brisbane, Australia. Available from:
http://www.riversymposium.com/index.php?element=29
Matondo, J..I. (2000).
WARFSA/WaterNet Symposium: Sustainable Use of Water Resources. Available online:
(Accessed on 15 Dec. 2006).Challenges of Sharing International Waters. Paper presented at the first
http://www.wca-infonet.org/servlet/BinaryDownloaderServlet?filename=106…
_wrwr01.pdf
Mbuya, L.W. (2004),
Section
McClain, M. / GLOWS (2007).
online:
McClain, M., E. Anderson & D. Ombara (2006). Securing Water for the Environment in the
Mara River Basin of East Africa.
(Accessed on 21 May 2007).Baseline Study on the Hydrology of Mara River Basin – The Tanzania. WWF–Tanzania Programme Office (TPO), unpublished document.Lecture: Integrated Water Resource Management. Availablehttp://www.globalwaters.net/glows/Portals/0/lectures (Accessed on 18 May 2007).Basin and Coast News 1(1), pp. 4-5. Available online:
http://www.imcafs.org/coastsheds/issues/Vol1Issue1.pdf
McHugh, O.V., A.N. McHugh, P.M. Eloundou-Enyegue & T.S. Steenhuis (2007). Integrative
Qualititaive Assessments and Land Cover Changes in Data Scarce Dry Ethiopian Highland
Watershed.
Available online:
(Accessed 22 Jun. 2007).Land Degradation and Development. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-in/fulltext/114268874/PDFSTART
(Accessed 22 Nov. 2007).
Mistry, V.V. & D.C. Conway (2003). Remote Forcing of East African Rainfall and
Relationships with Fluctuations in Levels of Lake Victoria.
Climatologic
Mitsch, W.J. & J.G. Gosselink. (2000).
Sons.
Mturi, J.M. (2007).
Functions: A Case Study of Kirumi Wetland, in the Mara River Catchments, Tanzania
International Journal of23, pp. 67-89.Wetlands (3rd edition). New York: John Wiley andLinkage Between Flow Patterns, Wetland Size and Possible Changes in
(Master thesis). Delft: UNESCO-IHE.
Mugini, L. (2006a). Tarime, Serengeti Vow to Check Cattle Rustling. In:
12-2006.
10 Jan. 2007).
Mugini, L. (2006b). Tarime, Death Toll in Mara Clashes Reaches Seven. In:
6-12-2006
10 Jan. 2007).
Daily News Tsn, 6-Available online: http://www.dailynews-tsn.com/page.php?id=4300 (Accessed onDaily News Tsn,available online: http://www.dailynews-tsn.com/page.php?id=4300 (Accessed on
157
Mutie, S.M., B. Mati, P. Home, H. Gadain & J.Gathenya (2006).
Change Effects on River Flow Using USGS Geospatial Stream Flow Models in Mara River
Basin, Kenya
Available online:
10 Feb. 2007)
NELSAP (Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program) (2002).
Preparation Phase
documents/p3-1_mara_river_basin.pdf -
NELSAP (Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program) (2007).
Resource Management
Evaluating Land Use. Center for Remote Censing of Land Surfaces, Bonn, 28-30 September 2006.http://www.zfl.uni-bonn.de/earsel/papers/141-148_mutie.pdf (Accessed onIccon 1 Proposal for. Available online: http://www.nilebasin.org/nelsap/nelsapbackup/(Accessed on 7 Jun. 2007).Workshop National. Available online:
http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/africa/East/Workshop/NBI_NELSAP%20Sendama.pdf
(Accessed: 23 Jun. 2007).
North, D.C. (1993).
Stockholm: The Nobel Foundation and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Obare, L. & J.B. Wangwe (1998).
Degradation in Kenya.
Economic Performance through Time. The Nobel Prizes 1993.Underlying Causes of Deforestation and ForestWorld Rainforest Movement. Available online:
http://www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/Africa/Kenya.html
Ostrom, E. (1990).
Action
Ostrom, E., T. Dietz, N. Dolsak, P.C. Stern, S. Stonich & E.U. Weber, eds. (2002).
Drama of the Commons
Portes, A. (2000). The Two Meanings of Social Capital.
Potter, R.B., T. Binns, J.A. Elliot, & D. Smith (2004).
edition). Edinburgh: Pearson Education Limited.
Pretty, J. (2003). Social Capital and the Collective Management of Resources.
pp. 1912-1914.
Ramsar (2007a). Homepage:
(Accessed on 27 Jul. 2007).Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective. (New York: Cambridge Press).The. Washington: National Academy Press.Sociological Forum 15 (1), pp. 1-12.Geographies of Development. (secondScience 302,The Ramsar Convention. Available online:
Ramsar (2007b).
(accessed 22 Sep. 2007).What are Wetlands? Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Available online:
http://www.ramsar.org/about/about_infopack_1e.htm
Ramsar (2007c).
online:
Reitsma, H., T. Dietz, & L. de Haan (eds) (1992).
Poor Survive in Dry-season Environments.
(Accessed 28 Jan. 2007).The Annotated Ramsar list. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Availablehttp://www.ramsar.org/profile/profiles_ur_tanzania.htm (Accessed 28 January 2007).Coping with Semiaridity: How the RuralUtrecht: Geographical Society.
158
Richerson, P.J., R. Boyd & B. Paciotti (2003). An Evolutionary Theory of Common
Management. In: Ostrom, E., T. Dietz, N. Dolsak, P.C Stern, S. Stonich & E.U. Weber, eds.
The Drama of the Commons
Rwezaura, B.A. (1985).
Universität Hamburg.
Schumpeter, P. (1950).
Scoones, I (1998). Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analyses.
paper
Sen, A. (1981).
Oxford University Press.
Serengeti Park Website (2000).
the Conflicts between Man and Nature?
serengeti.html
Serneels, S., M.Y. Said & E.F. Lambin (2001). Land Cover changes around major east
African wildlife reserve: The Mara Ecosystem (Kenya).
Sensing
Serneels, S. & E.F. Lambin (2001). Proximate Causes of Land use Change in Narok District,
Kenya: A Spatial Statistic Model.
Shao, J. (1986). The Villagization Program and the Disruption of the Ecological Balance in
Tanzania.
Shetler, J.B. (1995). A Gift for Generations to Come: A Kiroba Popular History From
Tanzania and Identity as Social Capital in the 1980s.
Historical Studies
Shetler, J.B. (2003a).
Leiden-Boston: Brill.
Shetler, J.B. (2003b). Interpreting Rupture in Oral Memory: The Regional Context for
Changes Western Serengeti Age Organization (1850-1895).
pp. 385-412.
Shetler, J.B. (2003c). The Gendered Spaces of Historical Knowledge: Woman’s Knowledge
and Extraordinary Women in the Serengeti District, Tanzania.
African Historical Studies
Shivji, I.G. (1999).
Cause?
20 February 1999.
Singida, I. (1984). Land and Population Problems in Kajiado and Narok, Kenya.
Studies Review
, pp. 404-411. Washington: National Academy Press.Traditional Family Law and Change in Tanzania. Hamburg:Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. New York: Harper and Row.IDS working72. London: IDS.Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlements and Deprivation. Oxford:Park Management, Conservation and Research – Answers toAvailable online: http://www.serengeti.org/main_(Accessed on 22 Jul. 2007).International Journal of Remote22(17), pp. 3397-3420.Agriculture, Statistics and Environment 85, pp. 65-81.Canadian Journal of African Studies 20 (2), pp. 219-239.The International Journal of African28(1), pp. 69-112.Telling Our Own Stories, Local Histories From South Mara, Tanzania.Journal of African History 44,International Journal of36(2), pp. 283-307.The Land Acts 1999: A Cause for Celebration or a Celebration of aUniversity of Dar es Salaam: keynote address to the workshop held at Morongoro 19-African27(1), pp. 23-39.
159
Singler, H. & M. McClain (2006).
Basin, Kenya-Tanzania
for the Mara Basin Initiative. Florida: GLOWS. Available online:
A Water Quality Baseline Assessment of the Mara River. Report of the Global Water for Sustainability (GLOWS), prepared
http://www.globalwaters.net/ glows/Portals/0/documents/MaraBaselineWQ_Report.pdf
(Accessed on 21 Jun. 2007).
Smit, B. & J. Wandel (2006). Adaptation, Adaptive Capacity and Vulnerability.
Environmental Change
Sneddon, C.S. (2000). Sustainability’ in Ecological Economics, Ecology and Livelihoods: A
Review.
Tellegen, E. & M. Wolsink (1998).
Global. 16 (3), pp. 282–292.Progress in Human Geography 24(4), pp. 521-549.Society and its Environment: An Introduction.
Amsterdam: OPA (Overseas Publisher Association).
Sutcliffe, J. & Y.P. Parks (1987). Hydrological Modelling of the Sudd and Jonglei Canal.
Hydrological Scientific Journal
Thomson, M. & K. Homewood (2001). Entrepreneurs, Elites, and Exclusion in Maasailand:
Trends in Wildlife Conservation and Pastoralist Development.
107-138.
Tietenberg, T.H. (1997).
32, pp. 143-159.Human Ecology 30(1), pp.Structural Adjustment and the Environment. Available online:
http://www.colby.edu/personal/t/thtieten/macro-tan.html
Tiffen, M., M. Mortimore & F. Gichuki (1994).
Recovery in Kenya
Tobisson, E. (1986).
Tanzania
United Nation Development Index (2006).
online:
URT (United Republic of Tanzania) (1995).
Formulation Report. Report No: 77/95 IFAD-UTR 57.
URT (United Republic of Tanzania) (2002).
FIP: Project performance and impact assessment report
Commicioner’s Office.
URT (United Republic of Tanzania) (2003).
Commission Dar es Salaam and Regional Commissioner’s Office Mara-region). Available
online:
URT (United Republic of Tanzania: official website) (2007).
Available online:
(Accessed 8 Oct. 2007).More People, Less Erosion: Environmental. London: Overseas Development Institute.Family Dynamics among the Kuria: Agro-pastoralists in Northern. Göteborg: ACTA Universitatis Gothoburgensis.Human Development Index Ranking. Availablehttp://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/indicators/1.html (Accessed 4 Oct. 2007).Mara Region Farmer Initiative Project.Mara Region Farmers’ Initiative Project Mara-. Musoma: Mara RegionalMara Region Socio-economic Profile. (Planninghttp://www.tzonline.org/pdf/Maraeng.pdf (Accessed on 15 Dec. 2006).Public Administration.http://www.tanzania.go.tz/administrationf.html (Accessed on 4 Jun. 2007).
160
Van Bavel, J. (2004). De Bevolkingsexplosie en Duurzame Ontwikkeling: Een veldoverzicht.
Tijdschrift voor Sociologie
. 25 (2), pp. 227-245. Available online:
http://homepages.vub.ac.be//~jvbavel/De%20wereldbevolkingsexplosie%20en…
%20ontwikkeling%20v4.pdf
Van den Born, R.J.G., R.H.J.Lenders, W.T. De Groot, & E. Huijsman (2001). ‘The New
Biophilia: An Exploration of Visions of Nature in Western Countries’,
Conservation
Virtanen, P. (2002). Local Management of Global Values: Community-Based Wildlife
Management in Zimbabwe and Zambia.
Walker, B. & D. Salt (2006).
Changing World.
Wikipedia (The Free Encyclopedia) (2007).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift_valley_fever (Accessed on 8 Aug. 2007).
Wilterdink, N. & B. van Heerikhuizen (2003). Hoofdstuk (Chapter) 6 Statificatie 173-208 In:
Wilterdink, N. & B. van Heerikhuizen (2003).
Terrein van de Sociologie
Wily, L.A. (2000).
Biennial Conference of the International Association for the Study on Common Property
(IASCP). USA: Indiana University. Available online:
00000514/00/wilyl032000.pdf
Woolcock, W. & D. Narayan (2000). Social Capital: Implications for Development-theory,
Research and Policy.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987).
Future
WWF / EARPO & EAC / LVBC Secretariat (forthcoming).
Consultative Workshop for Biodiversity Action Plan Development
WWF (World Wildlife Fund) (2007).
Available online:
projects/index.cfm?uProjectID=9F0789
Yanda, P.Z. & A.J. Majule (2004).
On The Mara River Basin
Zaal, F. & R.H. Oostendorp (2002). Explaining a Miracle: Intensification and Transition
Towards Sustainable Small-scale Agriculture in Dryland Machakos and Kitui Districts,
Kenya.
(Accessed 4 Dec. 2006).Environment28 (1), pp. 65–75.Society and Natural Resources 16, pp. 179-190.Resilience Thinking, Sustaining Ecosystems and People in aWashington: Island Press.Rift Valley Fever. Available from:Samenlevingen: Een Verkenning van het. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff.Reconstructing the African Commons. A paper presented at the eighthhttp://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/archive/(Accessed on 2 Aug. 2007).The World Bank Research Observer 15(2), pp. 225-249.Our Common. Oxford, University press.Background Paper to the Initial. Arusha: Tanzania.Transboundery Water in the Mara Basin (online).http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/project/(Accessed on 1 Aug. 2007).Baseline Studies on Social-Economic and Cultural Aspects. WWF Tanzania Programme Office (TPO). unpublished document.World Development 30 (7), pp. 1271-1287.
