Etnisch profileren en anti-discriminatie in België: dansen op een slappe koord

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

 

All hyperlinks are consulted and verified on 3 May 2016.

All sources are listed chronologically per category, except books and academic articles.

 

 

Conventions and resolutions

 

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN General Assembly, A/RES/3/217A, 10 December

1948.

 

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 4

November 1950, ETS 005, entered into force 3 September 1953.

 

International  Convention  on  the  Elimination  of  All  Forms  of  Racial  Discrimination,  21

December 1965, resolution 2106 (XX), entered into force 4 January 1969.

 

Code  of  Conduct  for  Law  Enforcement  Officials,  UN  General  Assembly, A/RES/34/169

Annex, 17 December 1979.

 

Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic

Processing of Personal Data, 28 January 1981, ETS 108, entered into force 1 October 1985.

 

Protocol No. 12 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental

Freedoms, 4 November 2000, CETS No. 177, entered into force 1 April 2005.

 

Explanatory Report to the Protocol No. 12 to the Convention for the Protection of Human

Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, CETS 177, 4 November 2000.

 

UN Human Rights Council, resolution adopted on 2 October 2015, “From rhetoric to reality: a global call for concrete action against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance”, A/HRC/RES/30/16, 12 October 2015.

 

EU legislation

 

Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, Official Journal L 281, 23 November 1995, 31–50.

 

Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin, Official Journal L 180, 19 July 2000,

22-26.

 

 

Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation, Official Journal L 303, 2 December 2000, 16-

22.

 

Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on combating terrorism, Official Journal L

164, 22 June 2002, 3-7.

 

 

 

 

Council Framework Decision 2008/977/JHA of 27 November 2008 on the protection of personal data processed in the framework of police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters, Official Journal L 350, 30 December 2008, 60-71.

 

Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, Official Journal C 326, 26 Oktober

2012, 391-407.

 

Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union, Official Journal C 326, 26 December

2012, 13-390.

 

Regulation 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation), Official Journal L 119, 4 May 2016, 1-88.

 

Directive 2016/680 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data by competent authorities for the purposes of the prevention, investigation, detection or prosecution of criminal offences or the execution of criminal penalties, and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Council Framework Decision 2008/977/JHA, Official Journal L 119, 4

May 2016, 89-131.

 

Directive 2016/681 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the use of passenger name record (PNR) data for the prevention, detection, investigation and prosecution of terrorist offences and serious crime, Official Journal L 119, 4 May 2016, 132-

149.

 

Belgian legislation and official documents

 

Wetboek  van  strafvordering  van  7  november  1808  (Criminal  Procedure  Code),  BS  27

November 1808.

 

Strafwetboek van 8 juni 1867 (Penal Code), BS 9 June 1867, 3133.

 

Wet van 10 April 1990 tot regeling van de private en bijzondere veiligheid (Private Security

Act), BS 29 May 1990, 10963.

 

Wet van 8 juli 1991 tot regeling van het toezicht op politie- en inlichtingendiensten en op het Coördinatieorgaan voor de dreigingsanalyse (The Organic Law on monitoring police forces, intelligence services and the Coordinating Body for Threat Analysis), BS 16 July 1991,

16576.

 

Wet van 29 juli 1991 betreffende de uitdrukkelijke motivering van de bestuurshandelingen

(Law on Explicit Motivation of Administrative Actions), BS 12 September 1991, 19976.

 

Wet van 5 augustus 1992 op het politieambt (Law on the Police Function), BS 22 December

1992, 27124.

 

 

 

 

 

Wet van 8 december 1992 voor de bescherming van de persoonlijke levenssfeer ten opzichte van de verwerking van persoonsgegevens (Privacy Act), BS 18 March 1993, 5801, consolidated version 28 December 2015.

 

Koninklijk  besluit  van  8  februari  1993  tot  vaststelling  van  het  organiek  statuut  van  het

Centrum voor gelijkheid van kansen en voor racismebestrijding, BS 2 March 1993, 4417.

 

De gecoördineerde Grondwet van 17 februari 1994 (Belgian Constitution), BS 17 February

1994, 4054

 

Wet van 30 november 1998 houdende regeling van de inlichtingen- en veiligheidsdiensten

(Law on intelligence and security services), BS 18 December 1998, 40312.

 

Wet van 13 mei 1999 tot invoering van gemeentelijke administratieve sancties (Municipal

Administrative Sactions Act), BS 10 June 1999, 21629.

 

Omzendbrief CP 1 van 27 mei 2003 betreffende Community Policing, definitie van de Belgische interpretatie van toepassing op de geïntegreerde politiedienst, gestructureerd op twee niveaus (Community Policing Circular), BS 9 July 2003, 37049.

 

Wet van 19 december 2003 betreffende terroristische misdrijven (Terrorism Act), BS 29

December 2003, 61689.

 

Koninklijk Besluit van 10 mei 2006 houdende vaststelling van de deontologische code van de politiediensten (Code of Police Ethics), BS 30 May 2006, 27086.

 

Wet van 10 mei 2007 tot wijziging van de wet van 30 juli 1981 tot bestraffing van bepaalde door racisme of xenophobie ingegeven daden (Anti-Racism Law), BS 30 May 2007, 29046.

 

Wet van 10 mei 2007 ter bestrijding van bepaalde vormen van discriminatie (Anti- Discrimination Law), BS 30 May 2007, 29016.

 

Wet van 4 februari 2010 betreffende de methoden voor het verzamelen van gegevens door de inlichtingen- en veiligheidsdiensten (Act on special intelligence methods by the intelligence and security services), BS 4 February 2010, 14916.

 

Gemeenschappelijke omzendbrief nr. Col 13/2013 van de minister van justitie, de minister van binnenlandse zaken, en het college van procureurs-generaal bij de hoven van beroep, betreffende het opsporings- en vervolgingsbeleid inzake discriminatie en haatmisdrijven (met inbegrip  van  discriminaties  op  grond  van  het  geslacht)  (Circular  13/2013),  college  van procureurs-generaal, 17 juni 2013.

<www.om-mp.be/extern/getfile.php?p_name=4499864.PDF&pid=5198967&gt;

 

Wet van 24 juni 2013 betreffende de gemeentelijke administratieve sancties (New Law on

Municipal Administrative Sanctions), BS 1 July 2013, 41293.

 

Cooperation agreement between the federal authority, the Regions and the Communities aimed at creating an Interfederal Centre for Equal Opportunities and Opposition to Racism and Discrimination in the form of a joint institution, in the sense of article 92bis of the Special Act of 8 August 1980 on the Reform of the Institutions, 12 June 2013, unofficial translation,

<unia.be/files/legacy/cooperation_agreement_0.pdf>

 

 

 

 

Ministeriële omzendbrief GPI 78 van 31 januari 2014 betreffende de informatieverwerking ten voordele van een geïntegreerde aanpak van terrorisme en gewelddadige radicalisering door de politie (Circular GPI 78), BS 13028, 17 February 2014.

 

Ministeriële omzendbrief OOP 44 van 23 oktober 2015 betreffende de versterkte controle op basis van artikel 34 van de wet op het politieambt, BS 3 November 2015 66740.

 

Other national legislation

 

Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (United Kingdom) (PACE), Code  A, Revised

Code of Practice for the exercise by: Police Officers of Statutory Powers of stop and search

Police Officers and Police Staff of requirements to record public encounters, Home Office, 19

March 2015.

<www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/41419…-

15.pdf>

 

Soft law and reports by international organizations

 

United Nations

 

United Nations, Durban Declaration and Plan of Action, Adopted at the World Conference

Against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and related violence, 8 September 2001,

62 p.

<www.un.org/en/durbanreview2009/pdf/DDPA_full_text.pdf&gt;

 

Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, General recommendation No. 31 on the prevention of racial discrimination in the administration and functioning of the criminal justice system, A/60/18, 2005, 98-108.

 

SCHEININ, M.; United Nations General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, A/HRC/4/26, Geneva, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNOHCHR), 29 April 2007, 26 p.

 

Human Rights, Terrorism and Counter-terrorism, Fact Sheet No. 32, DPI/2439B/Rev.2, Geneva, UN Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, December

2007, 76p.

 

UN  Human  Rights  Council,  Rosalind  Williams  Lecraft  v.  Spain,  Communication  No

1493/2006, views adopted on 27 July 2009.

 

UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review: Belgium, A/HRC/18/3, 11 July 2011, 23 p.

 

RUTEERE, M.; United Nations (UN) General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, A/HRC/29/46, Geneva, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 20 April

2015, 20 p.

 

 

 

 

 

UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Legal considerations on the return of asylum-seekers and refugees from Greece to Turkey as part of the EU-Turkey Cooperation in Tackling the Migration Crisis under the safe third country and first country of asylum concept, 23 March

2016, 8 p.

< www.unhcr.org/56f3ec5a9.pdf&gt;

 

UN Human Rights Council, Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Twenty- fourth session Geneva, National report Belgium, A/HRC/WG.6/24/BEL/1, 9 November 2015.

 

 

 

Council of Europe

 

Committee of Ministers, European Police Code of Ethics, Recommendation Rec(2001)10 adopted  on  September  2001,  explanatory  memorandum,  Strasbourg,  Council  of  Europe, March 2002.

 

Committee of Ministers, Guidelines on human rights and the fight against terrorism, Strasbourg, Council of Europe, 2005, 70 p.

<www.un.org/en/sc/ctc/specialmeetings/2011/docs/coe/coe-rights_guideline…;

 

European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), General Policy Recommendation No 11 on Combating racism and racial discrimination in policing, Strasbourg, Council of Europe, 2007, 26 p.

<www.coe.int/t/dlapil/codexter/Source/ECRI_Recommendation_11_2007_EN.pdf…;

 

SIMON, P. AND European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), “Ethnic” statistics and data protection in the Council of Europe countries. Study Report, Strasbourg, Council of Europe, 2007, 122 p.

<www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/activities/Themes/Ethnic_statistics_…;

 

Consultative Committee of the Convention for the Protection of Individuals With Regard to Automatic Processing Of Personal Data, Application of Convention 108 to the Profiling Mechanism - Some ideas for the future work of the consultative committee, T-PD, Strasbourg, Council of Europe 2008, 34 p.

<www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/dataprotection/Reports/CRID_Profilin…;

 

Commissioner For Human Rights, Protecting the right to privacy

in the fight against terrorism, Issue paper, CommDH/IssuePaper(2008)3, Strasbourg, Council of Europe, 2008, 16 p.

 

MURDOCH, J. AND ROCHE, R., The European Convention On Human Rights And Policing. A handbook for police officers and other law enforcement officials, Strasbourg, Council of Europe, December 2013, 152 p.

<www.coe.int/t/dghl/cooperation/capacitybuilding/source/documentation/eu…

.pdf>

 

Committee of Experts on Terrorism (Codexter), Profiles on counter-terrorism capacity, Belgium, February 2014, 6 p.

<www.coe.int/t/dlapil/codexter/Country%20Profiles/Profiles%202014%20Belg…;

 

 

 

 

 

 

European  Commission  against  Racism  and  Intolerance,  ECRI  Report  on  Belgium  (fifth monitoring cycle), Strasbourg, Council of Europe, 25 February 2014, 51 p.

<www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/Country-by-country/Belgium/BEL-CbC-V…;.

 

European Union

 

EU Network Of Independent Experts On Fundamental Rights, The balance of freedom and security in the response by the European Union and its member states to the terrorist threat, thematic comment, 31 March 2003, 52 p.

<ec.europa.eu/justice/fundamental-rights/files/cfr_cdf_themcomment1_en.pdf>

 

EU  Network  Of  Independent  Experts  On  Fundamental  Rights,  Ethnic  Profiling,  CFR- CDF.Opinion4.2006, December 2006, 96 p.

<ec.europa.eu/justice/fundamental-rights/files/cfr_cdf_opinion4_2006_en.pdf>

 

BUITENWEG, K.M. and Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs, Report of 6

July 2007 on the application of Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle  of  equal  treatment  between  persons  irrespective  of  racial  or  ethnic  origin,

2007/2094(INI), A6-0278/200, 2007, 30 p.

<www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=REPORT&reference=A6-2007-02…;

 

PAP, A.,  Profiling  In  Counter-Terrorism,  Law  Enforcement  and  Border  Control  (study), Brussels, European Parliament, PE 408.326, 2008, 63 p.

<www.europarl.europa.eu/studies&gt;

 

European Parliament, Recommendation to the Council of 24 April 2009 on the problem of profiling, notably on the basis of ethnicity, and race, in counter-terrorism, law enforcement, immigration, customs and border control, 2008/2020(INI), A6-0222/2009, 2009, 10 p.

<www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&language=EN&reference=P6…;

 

 

European Commission, Special Eurobarometer 437 Discrimination in the EU in 2015, fact sheet Belgium, October 2015.

<ec.europa.eu/COMMFrontOffice/PublicOpinion/index.cfm/Survey/getSurveyDetail/instruments/SPECIAL/yea rFrom/1973/yearTo/2015/surveyKy/2077>

 

European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, EU-MIDIS Technical Report Methodology, Sampling and Fieldwork, 2009, 104 p.

<www.fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/eu-midis_technical_report.pdf&gt;

 

European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Towards More Effective Policing. Understanding and Preventing Discriminatory Ethnic Profiling: A Guide, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2010, 76 p.

 

European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, EU-MIDIS Data in Focus Report 4: Police

Stops and Minorities, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2010, 20 p.

<www.fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/1132-EU-MIDIS-police… >

 

 

European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Handbook on European non-discrimination law, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2010, 278 p.

 

FARKAS, L. and European Commission, Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers, How to  present  a  discrimination  claim.  Handbook  on  seeking  remedies  under  the  EU  Non-

 

 

 

discrimination Directives, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2011,

115 p.

 

European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Handbook on European data protection law, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2014, 199 p.

 

Reports by Belgian institutions

 

Vast Comité van Toezicht op de inlichtingen- en veiligheidsdiensten (Committee I), Verslag naar het onderzoek betreffende de opvolging van het radicale islamisme door de inlichtingendiensten, 2007, 78 p.

<www.comiteri.be/images/pdf/eigen_publicaties/vertslag%20onderzoek%20rad…

Admin=97d9ae9d92818b6f252c014a4a05bdfb>

 

Vast Comité van Toezicht op de politiediensten, Externe discriminatie: racisme/discriminatie, interim report, 2007, 23 p.

< www.comitep.be/AdditionalReports/2007/NL/ext_discriminatie.pdf&gt;

 

Vast  Comité  van  Toezicht  op  de  politiediensten,  Diversiteitsbeleid  met  betrekking  tot allochtone politieambtenaren, interim report, 2008, 7p.

<www.comitep.be/AdditionalReports/2008/NL/Diversiteit_allochtone_politie…;

 

Algemene Inspectie van de federale politie en van de lokale politie (AIG), Jaarverslag  van de werkingsjaren 2011-2012, Brussels, 62 p.

<www.aigpol.be/nl/pdf/AIG2011-2012NL.pdf&gt;

 

Kamer van Volksvertegenwoordigers 2010-2011, Vragen en antwoorden, vraag nr. 109 by E. Brems, 14 oktober 2010, nr. 53/018.

<www.dekamer.be/QRVA/pdf/53/53K0018.pdf&gt;

 

Vlaams   Parlement   2011-2012,   Schriftelijke   vragen   Mensenrechten   -   Kernverdragen. Antwoord van minister-president van de Vlaamse regering Kris Peeters, vraag nr. 327 van Danielle Godderis-T’jonck, 23 april 2012.

<www.vlaamsparlement.be/parlementaire-documenten/schriftelijke-vragen/67…;

 

Interfederaal Gelijkekansencentrum, Jaarverslag 2013. Conventie tussen het Centrum voor gelijkheid van kansen en voor racismebestrijding en de Federale Politie, Brussels, May 2014,

63 p.

<unia.be/nl/publicaties-statistieken/publicaties/samenwerking-met-de-federale-politie-jaarverslag-2013>

 

Federale  Politie  FPF/DGR/DRI/BIPOL,  Politiële  Criminaliteitsstatistieken  België  2000, Semester 1 2015, geregistreerde criminaliteit op het nationaal niveau, 8 p.

<www.stat.policefederale.be/assets/pdf/crimestat/nationaal/rapport_2015_…;

 

Federale Politie (FPF/DGR/DRI/BIPOL), Politiële Criminaliteitsstatistieken België Semester

1 2015 “Criminaliteitsbarometer”, 2015, 26 p.

<www.stat.policefederale.be/assets/pdf/notas/verklarende_nota_2015%20t2…;

 

Interfederaal  Gelijkekansencentrum,  Compilatie  van  de  bijdragen  Juni  2015  Universeel periodiek onderzoek door de Mensenrechtenraad van de Verenigde Naties Tweede cyclus –

24e zitting, s.d., 73 p.

<unia.be/nl/artikels/nog-steeds-geen-belgisch-mensenrechteninstituut>

 

 

 

 

Interfederaal  Gelijkekansencentrum,  Jaarverslag 2014    conventie tussen het interfederaal gelijkekansencentrum en de federale politie, May 2015, 32 p.

<unia.be/nl/publicaties-statistieken/publicaties/samenwerking-met-de-federale-politie-jaarverslag-2014>

 

Interfederaal Gelijkekansencentrum, Het werk van het centrum in 2014, uitgedrukt in cijfers,

October 2015.

<unia.be/nl/publicaties-statistieken/publicaties/het-werk-van-het-centrum-in-2014-uitgedrukt-in-cijfers>

 

Interfederaal  Gelijkekansencentrum,  Jaarverslag  2014.  Een  keerpunt  voor  het  Centrum,

Brussels, May 2015, 84 p.

<unia.be/nl/publicaties-statistieken/publicaties/jaarverslag-2014-een-keerpunt-voor-het-centrum>

 

Interfederaal Gelijkekansencentrum, Aandachtspunten met betrekking tot de strijd tegen discriminatie Ter attentie van de heer Jan JAMBON, Vice-eerste minister en minister van Veiligheid en Binnenlandse Zaken, belast met de Regie der gebouwen, 3 June 2015.

<unia.be/files/legacy/fed_aandachtspunten_tav_minister_van_bz_jan_jambon_ivm_strijd_tegen_discriminatie_2

015_06_03.pdf>

 

Vast Comité van Toezicht op de politiediensten, Jaarrapport 2014, 2015.

<www.comitep.be/2014/2014NL.pdf&gt;

 

Unia, Evaluatie: Wet van 10 mei 2007 tot wijziging van de wet van 30 juli 1981 tot bestraffing van  bepaalde  door  racisme  of  xenofobie  ingegeven  daden  (B.S.  30  mei  2007) (Antiracismewet) en wet van 10 mei 2007 ter bestrijding van bepaalde vormen

van discriminatie (B.S. 30 mei 2007) (Antidiscriminatiewet). Verslag van Unia,  February

2016, 118 p.

<unia.be/nl/publicaties-statistieken/publicaties/evaluatie-van-de-federale-antidiscriminatiewetten >

 

Jurisprudence

 

UNHRC

 

United Nations Human Rights Committee (adoption of views), Rosalind Williams Lecraft v. Spain, 1493/2006, 27 July 2009.

 

ECt.HR

 

EHRR (judgment) case "relating to certain aspects of the laws on the use of languages in education in Belgium" v. Belgium, App. no 1474/62; 1677/62; 1691/62; 1769/63; 1994/63 and

2126/64, 23 July 1968.

 

ECtHR (GC judgment), Thlimmenos v Greece, App. No. 34369/97, 6 April 2000.

 

ECtHR  (admissibility  decision),  Čonka and others,  the  Ligue  des  droits  de  l’homme  v. Belgium, App. No. 51564/99, decision of 13 March 2001.

 

ECtHR (judgment), Hugh Jordan v the United Kingdom, App. no. 24746/94, 4 May 2001. ECtHR (judgment), Cissé v. France, App. No. 51346/99, 9 August 2002.

 

 

 

 

ECtHR (judgment), Balogh v Hungary, App. No. 47940/99, 20 July 2004.

 

ECtHR (GC judgment), Nachova and others v Bulgaria, App. Nos. 43577/98 and 43579/98, 6

July 2005.

 

 

ECtHR (judgment), Timishev v Russia, App. No. 55762/00 and 55974/00, 13 December 2005.

 

ECtHR (judgment), Bekos and Koutropoulos v Greece, App. No. 15250/02, 13 December

2005.

 

ECtHR  (GC  judgment),  D.H.  and  Others  v  Czech  Republic,  App.  No.  57325/00,  13

November 2007.

 

ECtHR (judgment), Stoica v Romania, App. No 42722/02, 4 March 2008.

 

ECtHR  (GC  judgment),  S. and Marper v the United Kingdom,  App.  No.  30562/04  and

30566/04, 4 December 2008.

 

ECtHR (GC judgment), Andrejeva v. Latvia, App. No. 55707/00, 18 February 2009.

 

ECtHR (judgment), Turan Cakir v Belgium, App. No 44256/06, 10 March 2009.

 

ECtHR  (GC  judgment),  Gillan and Quinton v. United Kingdom,  App.  No.  4158/05,  12

January 2010.

 

ECtHR (judgment), Stefanou v Greece, App. No. 2954/07, 4 October 2010. ECtHR (judgment), B.S. v Spain, App. no. 47159/08, 24 July 2012.

ECtHR (judgment), Makhashevy v Russia, App. No. 20546/07, 31 July 2012.

 

ECtHR (judgment), Fedorchenko and Lozenko v Ukraine, App. No. 387/03, 20 September

2012.

 

ECtHR (judgment), Bouyid v. Belgium, App. No 23380/09, 21 November 2013 (referral to

Grand Chamber 24 March 2014).

 

 

ECtHR (GC judgment), Georgia v. Russia, App. No 13255/07, 3 July 2014, partly dissenting opinion of judge Tsotsoria.

 

ECtHR (judgment), Ciorcan and others v. Romania, App. Nos 29414/09 and  44841/09, 27

January 2015.

 

ECtHR (judgment), Boacă and others v. Romania, App. No. 40355/11, 12 January 2016.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Court of Justice of The European Union

 

CJEU, Huber v Federal Republic of Germany, C-524/06, 16 December 2008.

 

CJEU, Aziz Melki and Selim Abdeli v. France, Cases C-188/10 and C-189/10, 22 June 2010. CJEU, Chez v Nikolova, Case C‑83/14, 16 July 2015.

Belgian jurisdiction

 

Hof van Beroep Brussel, 1 April 2015.

<unia.be//nl/rechtspraak-alternatieven/rechtspraak/hof-van-beroep-brussel-1-april-2015>

 

Grondwettelijk Hof, arrest inzake het beroep tot vernietiging van de wet van 30 november

2009 “houdende instemming met de Overeenkomst tussen de Europese Unie en de Verenigde Staten  van  Amerika  inzake  de  verwerking  en  overdracht  van  persoonsgegevens  van passagiers (PNR-gegevens) door luchtvaartmaatschappijen aan het Ministerie van Binnenlandse Veiligheid van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika (PNR-Overeenkomst 2007), gedaan te Brussel op 23 juli 2007 en te Washington op 26 juli 2007”, ingesteld door de vzw Ligue des Droits de l’Homme, nr. 42/2011, 24 March 2011.

 

Other national jurisdictions

 

Supreme Court (US), Terry v Ohio, 392 US 1, 10 June 1968.

 

 

Supreme Court (US), United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 US 873, 30 June 1975.

 

UKHL  (United  Kingdom),  R  (European  Roma  Rights  Centre)  v  Immigration  Officer  at

Prague Airport, UKHL 55, 9 December 2004.

 

 

Bundesverfassungsgericht (Germany), 1BvR 518/02 (Rasterfahndung case), Rn. (1-184),

4 April 2006.

 

Oberverwaltungsgericht Rheinland-Pfalz (Germany), 7 A 10532/12.OVG, 29 Oktober 2012. Raad van State (Netherlands), 201400946/1/V6, 3 June 2015.

Cour d’appel de Paris (France), RG n° 13/24277,  24 June 2015.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Doctrine

 

Books and contributions in books

 

BELL, M., Racism and Equality in the European Union, Oxford, Oxford University Press,

2009, 200 p.

 

DEN BOER, M., “Revolving Doors: Ethics in a Shifting Security Paradigm”, in M. DEN BOER AND E. KOLTHOFF  (EDS.), Ethics and Security, The Hague, Eleven International Publishing,

2010, 15-37.

 

DE HERT, P. and GUTWIRTH, S., “Politie-accountability tussen crime control en due process” in CHRISTIAENS, J., ENHUS, E., NUYTIENS, A., SNACKEN, S. and VAN CALSTER, P. (eds.), Criminologie: tussen kritiek en realisme. Liber amicorum Christan Eliaerts, Brussel, VUBPress, 2007, 103-126.

 

DE HERT, P. and GUTWIRTH, S., “Grondrechten: vrijplaatsen voor het strafrecht? Dworkins Amerikaanse trumpmetafoor getoetst aan de hedendaagse Europese mensenrechten”, in HAVEMAN, R.H. and WIERSINGA, H.C. (eds.), Langs de randen van het strafrecht, Nijmegen, Wolf Legal Publishers, 2005, 141-175.

 

GELDOF, D., Superdiversity in the heart of Europe. How migration changes our society, Leuven, Acco, 2015, 264 p.

 

FAGAN, J. AND DAVIES, G., “Street stops and broken windows: Terry, race and disorder in

New York City” in LYONS,  W.T. JR. (ED.), Crime and criminal justice, London, Ashgate,

2006, 457–504.

 

GELLERT, R., DE VRIES, K., DE HERT P. and S. GUTWIRTH, “A Comparative Analysis of Anti- Discrimination and Data Protection Legislations” in CUSTERS, B., CALDERS, T. SCHERMER, B. and T. ZARSKY  (eds.),  Discrimination and Privacy in the Information Society,  Springer, Berlin, 2003, 61-89.

 

GOOSSENS, F., Politiebevoegdheden en mensenrechten in België een rechtsvergelijkend en internationaal onderzoek, masterproef KULeuven, 2006, 617 + CXXVIII p.,

< lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/1979/420/2/frankydoctoraat.pdf  >

 

HILDEBRANDT,   M.  AND   GUTWIRTH,   S.  (eds.),  Profiling  the  European  Citizen:  Cross

Disciplinary Perspectives, Dordrecht, Springer, 2008, 368 p.

 

 

MOTMANS,  J., CUYPERS,  D., MEIER,  P., MORTELMANS,  D. and ZANONI,  P.,  Equal  is  not enough: challenging differences and inequalities in contemporary societies, Conference proceedings, Antwerp, University of Antwerp, 2011, 582 p.

 

PALIDDA,  S.,  Racial Criminalization of Migrants in the 21st Century,  Farnham,  Ashgate

Publishing, 2011, 308 p.

 

 

PAP, A.L., “Ethno-Racial Profiling in Law Enforcement: Concepts and Recommendations” in BENEDEK, W., KARL, W. and MIHR, A. (eds.), European Yearbook on Human Rights, Wien, Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, 2009, 285-296.

 

 

 

 

RICE, S.K. and WHITE, M.D. (eds.), Race, ethnicity and policing. New and essential readings, New York, New York University Press, 2010, 535 p.

 

RINGELHEIM, J., “The Prohibition of Racial and Ethnic Discrimination in Access to Services under  the  EU  Law”  in  Human  European  Consultancy/Migration  Policy  Group  (eds.), European Anti-Discrimination Law Review, Utrecht/Brussels, 2010, 11-18.

 

ROWE, M. (ed.), Policing beyond Macpherson. Issues in policing, race and society, Devon, Willan Publishing, 2007, 196 p.

 

SUDRE, F. and SURREL, H. (eds.) Le droit à la non-discrimination au sens de la Convention européenne des droits de l’homme. Actes du colloque des 9 et 10 novembre 2007. Collection Droit et justice 81, Bruxelles, Etablissements Emile Bruylant, 2008, 474 p.

 

Articles in academic journals

 

ARNARDÓTTIR, O.M., “Non-discrimination Under Article 14 ECHR: the Burden of Proof”, 51

Scandinavian Studies in Law 2007, 13-39.

 

BAKER, A. AND PHILLIPSON, G., “Policing, profiling and discrimination law: US and European approaches compared”, 7 (1) Journal of Global Ethics 2011, 105-124,

 

BOU-HABIB, P., “Security, Profiling and Equality”, 11 Ethic Theory and Moral Practice 2008,

149-164.

 

ÇANKAYA, S., “De politiële surveillance van ras en etniciteit”, 35(2) Cahiers Politiestudies

2015, 13-33.

 

DEANGELIS,  P., “Racial Profiling and the Presumption of Innocence”, 43(1) Netherlands

Journal of Legal Philosophy 2014, 43-58.

 

DE SCHUTTER, O. AND  RINGELHEIM, J. “Ethnic Profiling: A rising Challenge for European

Human Rights Law”, 71 (3) Modern Law Review 2008, 358-384.

 

GILL, J.S., "Permissibility of Colour and Racial Profiling", 5(3) UWO Western Journal of

Legal Studies, 2014.

 

GOLDMANN,  M., "We Need to Cut Off the Head of the King: Past, Present, and Future

Approaches to International Soft Law," 25 Leiden Journal of International Law 2012, 335-

368.

 

HARCOURT, B., “Rethinking racial profiling: A critique of the economics, civil liberties, and constitutional literature, and of criminal profiling more generally”, 71(4), The University of Chicago Law Review 2004, 275–381.

 

HUNEEUS,  A.,  “Human  Rights  between  Jurisprudence  and  Social  Science”,  28(2)  Leiden

Journal of International Law 2015, 255-266.

 

 

 

 

 

JANSSENS  Y. AND  FORREZ  S., “Ethnic profiling in België. Een verkennende wandeling op braakliggend terrein”, 35(2) Cahiers Politiestudies, 2015, 59-74.

 

MEERSCHAUT,  K. and DE  HERT, P., “Identiteitscontroles  in  rechtsvergelijkend  perspectief. Moet controle op kleur worden gemeten?” 40 Orde van de dag 2007, 11-20.

 

MEERSHOEK,  G.,  “Over  de  bestrijding  van  politiële  discriminatie.  Kanttekeningen  bij  de beschuldiging van etnisch profileren”, (93) 1 Proces 2014, 46-51.

 

MILLER  J., GOUNEV  P., PAP A.L., WAGMAN  D., BALOGI  A., BEZLOV  T., SIMONOVITS  B. AND VARGHA L., “Racism and Police Stops: Adapting US and British Debates to Continental Europe”, 5(2) European Journal of Criminology 2008, 161-191.

 

MUTSAERS,  P.,  “Ethnic  profiling  from  an  anthropological  perspective.  Policing  internal borders in the Netherlands”, 88 Tilburg papers in Culture Studies 2013, 18p.

 

NUNZIATA, L., "Immigration and crime: evidence from victimization data", 28(3) Journal of

Population Economics 2015, 697–736.

 

O’ CINNEIDE, C. “The right to Equality: A Substantive Legal Norm or Vacuous Rhetoric?” 1

University College London Human Rights Revue 2008, 80-102.

 

O'CONNELL, R., “Cinderella comes to the Ball: Article 14 and the right to non-discrimination in the ECHR”, 29(2) Legal Studies: The Journal of the Society of Legal Scholars 2009,  211-

229.

 

PHILLIPS, C., “Institutional racism and ethnic inequalities: an expanded multilevel framework”, 40(1) Journal of social policy 2011, 173-192.

 

QUINTON, P., “The formation of suspicions: police stop and search practices in England and

Wales”, 21(4) Policing and Society 2011, 357-368.

 

RINGELHEIM, J., “The Roma Minority and the Utility of Human Rights”, 16(1) International

Journal on Minority and Group Rights 2009, 157-163.

 

RUBEL, A., “Profiling, Information Collection and the Value of Rights Argument”, 32(3)

Criminal Justice Ethics 2003, 210-230.

 

SMITH, M.R., AND  ALPERT, G.P, “Searching for direction: Courts, social science, and the adjudication of racial profiling claims”, 19(4) Justice Quarterly 2002, 673-703.

 

SMITH  B.W. AND  HOLMES  M.D.,  “Community  accountability,  minority  threat,  and  police brutality: an examination of civil rights criminal complaints”, 41(4) Criminology 2003, 1035-

1063.

 

SVENSSON, J. S. AND SAHARSO, S., “Proactive policing and equal treatment of ethnic-minority youths”, 24 Policing and Society 2014, 1-16.

 

TÓTH, B. M. AND KÁDÁR, A., “Ethnic profiling in ID checks by the Hungarian police”, 21(4),

Policing and Society 2011, 383-394.

 

 

 

 

“UK: Stop and search: Ethnic injustice continues unabated”, 15 (1) Statewatch, 2005, 15-16.

 

VANASSCHE, N. AND VERHAGE, A. “Racisme en etnisch profileren door politie: in België?”,

35(2) Cahiers Politiestudies 2015, 35-58.

 

VAN DER LEUN, J. P. AND VAN DER WOUDE M.A.H., “Ethnic profiling in the Netherlands? A reflection  on  expanding  preventive  powers,  ethnic  profiling  and  a  changing  social  and political context”, 21 (4) Policing and Society 2011, 444-455.

 

WEBER, L. AND BOWLING, B., “Stop and search in global context”, 21 (4) Policing and Society

2011, 353-356.

 

ZAUBERMAN, R. AND LÉVY, R., “Police, Minorities, And The French Republican Ideal”,

41(4) Criminology 2003, 1065-1100.

 

Research reports of Non-Governmental Organizations

 

TER  WAL, J. (ed.); European Research Centre on Migration and Ethnic Relations (ERCOMER), Racism And Cultural Diversity In The Mass Media, An overview of research and  examples  of  good  practice  in  the  EU  Member  States,  1995-2000  on  behalf  of  the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia, Vienna (EUMC) Vienna, February

2002, 459 p.

 

European Network against Racism (ENAR), Fact Sheet 40. Ethnic Profiling, June 2009, 17 p.

<enar-eu.org/IMG/pdf/enar_osji_factsheet_ethnic_profiling_oct09.pdf>

 

Open  Society  Justice  Initiative,  Ethnic  Profiling  in  the  European  Union:  Pervasive, Ineffective, and Discriminatory, New York, Open Society Institute, 2009, 198 p.

<www.opensocietyfoundations.org/reports/ethnic-profiling-european-union-…- discriminatory>

 

GONZALEZ-FUSTER,  G., GUTWIRTH, S., AND ELLYNE, E., Profiling in the European Union: A high-risk practice, INEX Policy Brief No. 10, 2010, 11 p.

<www.prio.org/PageFiles/1522/INEX policy brief No 10.pdf>

 

BOUHLAL, R. AND AKROUH, I.; European Network against Racism (ENAR), Rapport alternatif d  'ENAR  2009/2010.  Rapport  supplément:  Le profilage ethnique en Belgique,  Brussels, March 2011, 17 p.

<enar-eu.org/IMG/pdf/20092010_enar_supplement_belgium.pdf>

Open  Society  Justice  Initiative,  Reducing  ethnic  profiling  in  the  European  Union:  A Handbook  of  good  practices,   New   York,   Open   Society   Foundation,   2012,   227   p.

<www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/reducing-ep-in-EU-12…;

Open  Society  Justice  Initiative,  Human  Rights  Digests:  European  Standards  on  Ethnic Profiling, New York, Open Society Foundation November 2013, 51p.

<www.opensocietyfoundations.org/briefing-papers/case-digests-internation…- decisions-and-comments-un>

Amnesty International, Proactief optreden vormt een risico voor mensenrechten.Etnisch profileren onderkennen en aanpakken, Amsterdam, Amnesty International Afdeling

Nederland, 2013, 116 p.

 

European Network for Equality Bodies, Equinet note on the ongoing negotiations on the Horizontal Directive, March 2015.

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HUDDLESTON, T. BILGILI, Ö. JOKI, A-L AND Z. VANKOVA,  Migrant Integration Policy Index

(MIPEX), Anti-discrimination, Belgium, Barcelona, CIDOB, 2015, 56 p.

<www.mipex.eu/belgium&gt;

 

VROMEN, S., Ethnic profiling in the Netherlands and England and Wales: Compliance with international  and  European  standards, Public  Interest  Litigation  Project  (PILP-NJCM), Utrecht, Utrecht University, 2015, 33 p.

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Newspaper and magazine articles (including online)

“Terreurdreiging Joodse gemeenschap tot hoogste niveau opgetrokken”, www.standaard.be, 25 May 2014.

<www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20140524_01117889&gt;

“Politie heeft nood aan zelfevaluatie”, De Morgen, 27 Oktober 2014. BOVENKERK, F., “Etnisch profileren”, 177 (7) De Gids, 5 November 2014.

SMIT, W., “Opinie: De wrange ironie van de veiligheidsneurose”, De Standaard, 27 March 2015.

DELEPELEIRE, Y., “Er is gewoon geen plaats voor het woord zigeuner”, De Standaard, 15 April 2015.

<www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20150414_01630507&gt;

HAENEN,  M.,  “Proef  met  etnische  registratie  in  strijd  tegen  politiediscriminatie”,  NRC Handelsblad, 10 June 2015.

CHARLIER,   P.,   “Opinie:   Feesten   zonder   te   discrimineren?   Onze   deur   staat   open”,

www.demorgen.be, 26 August 2015.

<www.demorgen.be/opinie/feesten-zonder-te-discrimineren-onze-deur-staat-…;

DE RAEDT, K., “Niet alle moslims zijn terroristen”, www.standaard.be, 25 November 2015.

<www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20151125_01989024&gt;

BAUWENS,  D.,  “Opgepakt  wegens  verdachte  jogging”,  www.demorgen.be,  26  November 2015.

<www.demorgen.be/binnenland/opgepakt-wegens-verdachte-jogging- b54bd006/?utm_source=demorgen&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=newsletter&utm_content=daily&utm_userid=7ce13a57-bc14-4917-87a5-60be5e8f346b>

JAHJAH, D.A., “Voor altijd niveau 4”, column, De Standaard, 27 November 2015.

VANDAELE, J., “Opinie: de politie moet van iedereen zijn”, De Standaard, 3 December 2015.

VANLOMMEL, S., “Bij IS zitten geen Chinezen”, De Morgen, 3 December 2015.

CHARLIER,  P.,  “Opinie:  Islamofobie  is  een  prangend  aandachtspunt  bij  de  politie”,  De Morgen, 8 December 2015.

<unia.be/nl/artikels/islamofobie-is-een-prangend-aandachtspunt-bij-de-politie-opinie>

NAERT, J. AND DEBRUYNE, P., “Opinie: Racisme en ethnic profiling is niet ingebeeld, zoals wordt beweerd”, De Morgen, 15 December 2015.

PONSAERS, P., “Opinie: Etnisch profileren, hoe ver kun je gaan?”, De Morgen, 15 December 2015.

AMKREUTZ,  R. AND   VAN  DEN  BROEK,  A.,  “Blanke  Gentenaar  zou  hetzelfde  behandeld worden”, De Morgen, 15 December 2015.

VAN DEN BROEK, A., “De politie zit met een probleem”, De Morgen, 15 December 2015.

DE CONINCK, D., “Voormalig racismebestrijder bij de politie slaat mea culpa: ‘Ja, wij hebben gefaald’”, De Morgen, 19 December 2015.

“De Padt pleit voor registratie etnische afkomst bij contacten met politie”, www.knack.be, 20 December 2015.

<www.knack.be/nieuws/belgie/de-padt-pleit-voor-registratie-etnische-afko…- normal-637291.html>

“Jambon over ethnic profiling: ‘Logisch dat mensen met bepaald profiel eerst gecontroleerd worden’”, www.standaard.be, 21 December 2015.

<www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20151221_02031538

ECKERT, M., “Getuigenis: verbaal en fysiek geweld tegen moslims neemt toe ‘Plots begon die man te schelden omdat ik een hoofddoek draag’”, De Standaard, 25 February 2016

“Jambon  onderzoekt  Belgische  databank  voor  vingerafdrukken”,  www.standaard.be,  1 March 2016.

<www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20160301_02157843&gt;

LEGRAND, R., “Comité P klaagt racisme aan in Antwerps politiekorps”, www.detijd.be, 25 April 2016.

<www.tijd.be/politiek_economie/belgie_vlaanderen/Comite_P_klaagt_racisme…;

“Groen: ‘Racisme al jaren vast onderdeel binnen politie. Ontoelaatbaar’”, www.standaard.be,

25 April 2016.

<www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20160425_02256583&gt;

COUZY, M. , “GroenLinks wil dat agent reden aanhouding bijhoudt”, www.parool.nl, 1 May2016.

<www.parool.nl/amsterdam/groenlinks-wil-dat-agent-reden-aanhouding-bijho…;

DE BOECK, A., “Jambon: ‘We gaan niet enkel mensen met een bruine huidskleur uit de rij halen’”, www.demorgen.be, 3 May 2016.

<www.demorgen.be/binnenland/jambon-we-gaan-niet-enkel-mensen-met-een-bru…- halen-b9870841/>

TACK, H. “Opgelet voor het omaatje van 85. Ga niet af op het uiterlijk.”, www.standaard.be, 3

May 2016.

<www.standaard.be/plus/20160503/avond?page=5&gt;

BENFQUIH, Y., “Opinie: Ik wil best eenmaal verdacht lijken, maar niet telkens weer”, De

Morgen, 4 May 2016. Miscellaneous sources On Belgium

“België: Amnesty roept agenten op tot kalmte en politiek tot actie”, 2 December 2015.

<www.aivl.be/nieuws/belgie-amnesty-roept-agenten-op-tot-kalmte-en-politi…;

“Communication by OCAD, Belgian Coordination Unit For Threat Analysis, 18 April 2016.

<centredecrise.be/nl/news/crisisbeheer/waakzaamheid-tegen-terrorisme-blijft-0>

Conclusion of treaties in Belgium

<diplomatie.belgium.be/en/treaties/conclusion_of_treaties/>

Naar  een  efficiënter  politieoptreden  in  de  politiezone  Brussel-Noord”,  Programma  van studiedag georganiseerd door Interfederaal Gelijkekansencentrum, 17 February 2016.

Immigration in Belgium

<www.migrationpolicy.org/article/belgium-country-permanent-immigration&gt;

Infographics on threat levels

<www.lokalepolitie.be/5888/nieuws/3140-dreigingsniveau-3&gt;

Interfederaal Gelijkekansencentrum, Standpunt van het Interfederaal Gelijkekansencentrum over de praktijk van etnische profilering: inzet en gevolgen, s.d., document received from Unia, March 2016, 2 p.

Privacy Commission, Protection of Personal Data in Belgium.

<www.privacycommission.be/sites/privacycommission/files/documents/protec…- belgium.pdf>

Racial profiling in Belgium Facebook Page

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Universal Periodic Review 2016, advance questions to Belgium, 4 p.

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International online sources

Bureau for the Implementation of Equal Treatment (BUG), Discriminatory 'stop-and-search' cases .

<www.bug-ev.org/en/activities/lawsuits/discriminatory-stop-and-search-ca…;

DEUTCH,  J.,  Profiling  (in)justice,  Disaggregating  Data  by  Race  and  Ethnicity  to  Curb Discriminatory Policing, video of presentation, 28 December 2015.

<www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWyY0kujvUw&gt;

End Racial profiling Act, USA.

<www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/1933&gt;

Equality Data Collection

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JANSEN,  O.,  “Raad  van  State:  bestuurlijke  boete  onderuit  wegens  discriminatie  (etnisch profileren)”, 9 Juni 2015.

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MUTSAERS, P., A public anthropology of policing: Law enforcement and migrants in the Netherlands (Phd dissertation), s.l., s.n., 2015, 196 p.

< pure.uvt.nl/ws/files/6872568/Mutsaers_Public_12_06_2015.pdf>

“Paris Court Accepts Appeal on French Police Ethnic Profiling Case”, Press release, 24 June 2015.

<www.opensocietyfoundations.org/press-releases/paris-court-accepts-appea…- case>

PERONI,  L., “Racial Discrimination in Strasbourg (Part II): Intersectionality and Context”, blog post, 17 October 2012

<strasbourgobservers.com/2012/10/17/racial-discrimination-in-strasbourg-part-ii-intersectionality-and-context>

PERONI,  L., “Racial Discrimination in Strasbourg (Part II): Intersectionality and Context”, blog post, 17 October 2012

<strasbourgobservers.com/2012/10/17/racial-discrimination-in-strasbourg-part-ii-intersectionality-and-context>

Press Release EU-MIDIS

<fra.europa.eu/en/press-release/2010/eu-survey-minorities-and-immigrants-sheds-new-light-extent-racism-eu>

TIMMER,  A. “The  Court  on  Racial  Discrimination  (Part  I):  M.  and  Others  v.  Italy  and Bulgaria”,  blog post, 9 October 2012.

<strasbourgobservers.com/2012/10/09/the-court-on-racial-discrimination-part-i-m-and-others-v-italy-and- bulgaria/>